Why does a dog have elevated white blood cells? We decipher the dog's tests - Be healthy

Has your pet had a blood or urine test? Or even took an ECG? And now you have received the test results. All indicators are listed on the veterinary clinic’s letterhead. You read names that are unusual for you, look at a column of mysterious numbers - and... you don’t understand anything! Common situation? I don’t know what thoughts arose in your mind, but when I first received such a piece of paper, I had the feeling that I was trying to decipher the cuneiform writing of the ancient Egyptians! No, of course, the doctor, having looked at the test results, told me then that everything was fine with my puppy, there was no particular cause for concern, but the hemoglobin level was slightly lower, I should take him for walks in the fresh air more...

Maybe just curiosity got the better of me, but most likely concern about the condition of my four-legged friend forced me to look into this “Egyptian cuneiform”. So, what can the dog owner's test results tell him about his pet? I would like to especially emphasize that this entire note is purely educational in nature and cannot in any way be used to make a diagnosis. Only a veterinarian can diagnose your pet and cure it!

And it should also be remembered that the values ​​of indicators that are considered to be the “norm” are averaged. Normal values ​​may vary significantly depending on the sex, age, and size of the animal. In addition, the individual characteristics of the dog should be taken into account: the diseases it has suffered, the medications it takes, its diet, etc. – all this also has a significant impact on the test results. In other words, only a qualified specialist can correctly interpret test results. And we will simply try to figure out what indicators are measured during analyses, what are the norms for these indicators, and what a deviation of values ​​from the norm in one direction or another may indicate.

General urine analysis in dogs

When conducting a general urine test, indicators such as color, transparency, reaction of urine and its relative density (specific gravity) are assessed.

Normally, the color of urine is yellow, it is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the urine. If the urine becomes lighter in color (polyuria), this indicates a decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances; if the concentration increases, then the urine acquires a rich yellow tint (diuresis). The color of urine may change under the influence of certain medications.

A significant change in the color of urine may indicate serious diseases, such as hematuria (red-brown urine), bilirubinemia (beer-colored urine), myoglobinuria (black urine), leukocyturia (milky-white urine).

The urine of a completely healthy dog ​​is normally completely transparent. If the conclusion says that the urine is cloudy, this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

The reaction of urine is the level of its acidity. Fluctuations in this indicator are due to the animal’s diet: a meat diet produces an acidic urine reaction, while a plant diet produces an alkaline urine reaction. If the diet is mixed, then predominantly acidic metabolic products are formed, so a slightly acidic urine reaction is considered to be the norm. It should be borne in mind that the reaction of urine must be determined immediately upon delivery to the laboratory, since urine decomposes quite quickly and its pH shifts to the alkaline side due to the release of ammonia.

The specific gravity of urine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine; on the basis of it, the renal function of the animal is assessed. A urine density value in the range of 1.02-1.035 is considered normal.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

The norm is considered to be a protein content in urine of up to 0.3 g/l. Increased protein in the urine is called proteinuria. The causes of proteinuria may be chronic infections or destructive processes in the kidneys, urinary tract infections or urolithiasis, as well as hemolytic anemia.

Glucose

Normally there should be no glucose in the urine of a healthy dog. Glucosuria (the presence of glucose in the urine) can be caused either by a high concentration of glucose in the blood or by a violation of the processes of filtration of glucose and its reabsorption in the kidneys. This may indicate diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. On average, from 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are excreted in the urine of an adult dog per day, which are not detected in one-time tests, so the absence of ketone bodies in the urine is considered the norm. If ketone bodies are detected in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of sugar in the urine. If sugar is detected, a diagnosis of diabetic acidosis (or even coma, depending on the symptoms and condition of the animal) is usually made.

If ketone bodies are found in the urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with fasting, or with gastrointestinal disorders, or with severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin and urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in urine.

The urine of healthy dogs contains a minimal amount of bilirubin; it is not detected by the usual qualitative tests most often used in practice. Therefore, the absence of bile pigments in the urine is considered normal. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or disturbances in the outflow of bile, while direct (bound) bilirubin increases in the blood.

Urobilinogen is formed in the small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. A positive reaction to urobilinogen is not very informative for differential diagnosis, because observed not only with various liver lesions, but also with diseases of the gallbladder, as well as enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

Urine sediment may contain both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and casts) - this is the so-called organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in urine is called hematuria. If a change in the color of urine is observed, then we are talking about gross hematuria; if the color of the urine remains normal, and red blood cells are detected only under a microscope, microhematuria is indicated. The presence of unchanged red blood cells in the urine is characteristic of damage to the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Hemoglobinuria is the presence of hemoglobin in the urine, which is caused by intravascular hemolysis. At the same time, the urine changes color to coffee. There are no red blood cells in the urine sediment.

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal are contained in minimal quantities - no more than 1-2 in the field of view of a microscope. Increased content of leukocytes in urine ( pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Epithelial cells are almost always present in urine sediment. It is considered normal if their number in the field of view of the microscope does not exceed 5 pieces. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells entering the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. But the appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells (they line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, prostate ducts) may indicate inflammation of these organs, and even possible neoplasms of the urinary tract.

A cylinder is a protein that has coagulated in the renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the shape of the tubules themselves (a “cast” of a cylindrical shape is obtained). The absence of casts in urine sediment is considered the norm, since single casts can be detected in the urine of a healthy animal per day. Cylindruria(presence of casts in urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Disorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the pH of the urine. For example, when urine is acidic, uric acid, urates, and oxalates are found in it. If the urine reaction is alkaline, calcium and phosphates may be present in it.

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. However, when urinating, microbes from the lower urethra enter the urine; in a healthy dog ​​their number does not exceed 10,000 per ml. Under bacteriuria refers to the detection of bacteria in quantities exceeding the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

General blood test in dogs

Hemoglobin is the blood pigment of red blood cells that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells ( polycythemia), may be a consequence of excessive physical activity. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and blood thickening. A decrease in hemoglobin levels indicates anemia.

Red blood cells- These are non-nuclear blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the formed elements of blood. An increased number of red blood cells (erythrocytosis) may be due to bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic disease or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration. A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes, and overhydration.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR) in the form of a column when blood settles depends on their quantity, “weight” and shape, as well as on the properties of the plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. An increased ESR value is characteristic of various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, and tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

Platelets- These are blood platelets formed from bone marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting. An increased level of platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, and inflammatory processes. Platelet counts may also increase after some surgical procedures. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is characteristic of systemic autoimmune diseases (lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytes- These are white blood cells formed in the red bone marrow. They perform a very important immune function: they protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. There are different types of leukocytes. Each species is characterized by some specific function. The change in the number of individual types of leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total, is of diagnostic importance.

Increased white blood cell count ( leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, and long-term use of certain medications.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes ( leukopenia) may be caused by infectious pathologies of the bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, and anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula– this is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

1. Neutrophils– these are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, while the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. When diagnosing inflammation, it is the increase in the number of band neutrophils (band shift) that is important. Normally, they make up 60-75% of the total number of leukocytes, band cells - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body or psycho-emotional agitation. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by certain infectious diseases (most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, and genetic disorders.

3. Basophils– leukocytes, participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate the presence of an allergic reaction to the introduction of a foreign protein (including an allergy to food), chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, and blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytes- These are the main cells of the immune system that fight viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered body cells. Lymphocytes provide so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.

Lymphocytosis (increased levels of lymphocytes) can be caused by viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, as well as malignancies, or renal failure, or chronic liver diseases, or immunodeficiency conditions.

5. Monocytes- These are the largest leukocytes, the so-called tissue macrophages. Their function is the final destruction of foreign cells and proteins, foci of inflammation, and destroyed tissues. Monocytes are the most important cells of the immune system that are the first to encounter antigen. Monocytes present antigen to lymphocytes to develop a full immune response. Their number is 0-2% of the total number of leukocytes.

The average statistical values ​​of the norm of indicators determined during a general blood test of dogs are given in the table.

Index	Floor	Up to 12 months		1-7 years		7 years and older
		Oscillations	Wed. meaning	Oscillations	Wed. meaning	Oscillations	Wed. meaning
Red blood cells (million/µl)	Male	2,99-8,52	5,09	5,26-6,57	5,92	3,33-7,76	5,28
	Bitch	2,76-8,42	5,06	5,13-8,6	6,47	3,34-9,19	5,17
Hemoglobin (g/dl)	Male	6,9-16,5	10,7	12,7-16,3	15,5	14,721,2	17,9
	Bitch	6,4-18,9	11,2	11,5-17,9	14,7	11,0-22,5	16,1
Leukocytes (thousand µl)	Male	9,9-27,7	17,1	8,3-19,5	11,9	7,9-35,3	15,5
	Bitch	8,8-26,8	15,9	7,5-17,5	11,5	5,2-34,0	13,4
Mature neutrophils (%)	Male	63-73	68	65-73	69	55-80	66
	Bitch	64-74	69	58-76	67	40-80	64
Lymphocytes (%)	Male	18-30	24	9-26	18	15-40	29
	Bitch	13-28	21	11-29	20	13-45	29
Monocytes (%)	Male	1-10	6	2-10	6	0-4	1
	Bitch	1-10	7	0-10	5	0-4	1
Eosinophils (%)	Male	2-11	3	1-8	4	1-11	4
	Bitch	1-9	5	1-10	6	0-19	6
Platelets x 109/l				200-500	350

Biochemical blood test for dogs

A biochemical analysis of dogs' blood determines the content of certain substances in the blood. The table below provides a list of these substances, the average levels of these substances in the blood for dogs, and possible reasons for the increase and decrease in the amount of these substances in the blood.

Substance	Unit measurements	Norm	Possible reasons for the increase	Possible reasons for the decline
Glucose	mmol/l	4.3-7.3	Diabetes Exercise stress Thyrotoxicosis Cushing's syndrome Pancreatic diseases Liver or kidney diseases	Starvation Insulin overdose Tumors Hypofunction of the endocrine glands Severe poisoning Pancreatic diseases
Total protein	g/l	59-73	Dehydration Myeloma	Starvation Intestinal diseases Kidney failure Increased consumption (blood loss, burns, inflammation)
Albumen	g/l	22-39	Dehydration	Same as for total protein
Total bilirubin	µmol/l	0-7,5	Damage to liver cells Obstruction of the bile ducts
Urea	mmol/l	3-8.5	Renal dysfunction Urinary tract obstruction Increased protein content in food	Protein fasting Pregnancy Malabsorption
Creatinine	µmol/l	30-170	Renal dysfunction Hyperthyroidism	Pregnancy Age-related decrease in muscle mass
Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT)	units	0-65	Destruction of liver cells Destruction of muscle tissue Burns Toxic effects on the liver of drugs
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)	units	10-42	Liver cell damage Heavy physical activity Heart failure Burns Heatstroke	Severe necrotic processes, liver rupture Vitamin B6 deficiency
Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT)	units	0-8	Diseases of the liver, pancreas Hyperthyroidism
Alpha amylase	units	550-1700	Pancreatitis Mumps Diabetes Volvulus of the stomach and intestines Peritonitis	Hypofunction of the pancreas Thyrotoxicosis
Potassium	mmol/l	3.6-5.5	Cell damage Dehydration	Chronic fasting Prolonged vomiting, diarrhea Renal dysfunction Excess of adrenal hormones
Sodium	mmol/l	140-155	Excess salt intake Loss of extracellular fluid Dysregulation of water-salt metabolism	Kidney pathology Heart failure Diabetes
Chlorides	mmol/l	105-122	Dehydration Acute renal failure	Profuse diarrhea, vomiting Increased fluid volume
Calcium	mmol/l	2.25-3	Increased parathyroid function Malignant tumors Excess Vitamin D Dehydration	Decreased thyroid function Vitamin D deficiency Chronic renal failure Magnesium deficiency
Phosphorus, inorganic	mmol/l	0.8-2.3	Bone destruction Healing of fractures Endocrine disorders Excess Vitamin D Kidney failure	Growth hormone deficiency Vitamin D deficiency Hypercalcemia Malabsorption
Phosphatase alkaline	units	0-100	Pregnancy Increased turnover in bone tissue Bone diseases Liver diseases	Hypothyroidism Anemia Lack of vitamins C, B12, zinc, magnesium
Total cholesterol	mmol/l	2.9-8.3	Liver diseases Hypothyroidism Cardiac ischemia	Enteropathies Hepatopathy Malignant neoplasms Poor nutrition

Pets, like people, sometimes get sick. To make a correct diagnosis, your veterinarian will often order laboratory tests, one of which is a urine test in cats and dogs.

The composition of urine is determined by the metabolic processes occurring in the animal’s body. It can vary depending on the composition of food and liquid consumed, seasonal and climatic factors, and the physiological state of the animal (sleep, stress, pregnancy, illness, etc.). Over 160 substances formed during the metabolic process are excreted in the urine of animals.

The physicochemical characteristics of urine can tell us about the condition of the kidneys and urinary tract, the presence of infection, toxins, and the order of metabolism. Based on the results of the analysis, the doctor can diagnose and predict diseases, monitor complications, monitor the effectiveness of therapy, judge the functional state of organs, and identify metabolic disorders.

Indications for urine analysis:

• diagnosis of diseases of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, urethra;
• diagnosis of diabetes mellitus;
• assessment of the condition of internal organs in case of poisoning with toxins;
• control of therapy, assessment of effectiveness, prevention of complications.

Caring owners can independently collect biomaterial and request analysis if they notice unnatural behavior of the pet: frequent visits to the litter box, strained urination, plaintive meowing or whining, uncharacteristic color or smell of discharge.

A cat urinating too often or too rarely is an important reason to immediately contact a specialist.

With some kidney diseases, the temperature rises and the animal may stop urinating or do so in unusual places. Delay in such cases can cost the animal’s life; owners must immediately take samples of discharge and come to the clinic for an appointment.

The chemical structure of urine changes quickly, so it must be delivered to the clinical laboratory within the first two hours. The required minimum volume of liquid is 20 ml.

In order for laboratory test results to be reliable, you must correctly collect a urine sample from your pet.

Collecting urine from cats

Biomaterial is collected from feline representatives at any time of the day. There are several simple and proven collection methods. The choice depends on the habits of the pet itself.

• specialized urine collector for cats.

Collecting urine from dogs

Urine collection from dogs is done in the morning. The container must be prepared in advance: washed and disinfected.

For females, take a tray with low sides or a cup. Don't forget to take a sterile urine container and disposable gloves. The dog is held on a short leash, located slightly behind it. At the right moment, a container is placed under the stream. It is better to take a medium portion of urine. To pour into a container, simply unscrew the cap of the bottle;

1. If your dog urinates in the same place every time, you can put a clean film in advance and then collect the result with a syringe;
2. You can use a urine bag for children. To secure it to the body, use diapers or accessories for dogs (overalls, pants, bodysuits)

Below are additional tips on how to collect urine from your pet on the street without causing resistance.

If you have difficulty taking samples at home, you can seek help from specialists. In veterinary laboratories, urine collection may be done using a catheter. However, this method has a number of disadvantages: pain, the need for fixation, trauma and contamination in males. Therefore, this method is used for emergency purposes.

The most sterile and informative method is cystocentesis - puncture of the bladder with a syringe. This manipulation is performed by a doctor. The procedure is painless and is done in a position that is comfortable for the animal. Sometimes cystocentesis is done under ultrasound guidance.

Video - Collecting tests from cats and dogs

How is urine testing performed on pets?

The simplest and most informative diagnostic method is a general (clinical) urinalysis (OAM), which consists of three interrelated studies:

1. Analysis of physical properties.
2. Study of chemical indicators.
3. Microscopic examination of sediment.

Analysis results can be ready in as little as 30 minutes.

To determine pathological microflora, bacterial culture of urine is performed. The results will be ready in 10 – 14 days.

Physical indicators of urine analysis in cats and dogs

The physical characteristics of urine are determined by visual examination. These include:

• daily amount;
• specific gravity or density;
• color gradation;
• transparency, presence of sediment;
• consistency;
• reaction;
• smell.

Daily amount

70% of the fluid entering the body is excreted with urine. The daily amount depends on many factors: the volume of liquid drunk, the composition of the feed, the functioning of the sweat and sebaceous glands, the heart, lungs, digestive tract organs, kidneys. The quantitative indicator of urine excreted per day helps the doctor characterize the condition of the body as a whole and recognize pathological processes.

If the animal uses a tray without filler, then the owners can calculate the daily amount of urine at home. In other cases, counting may cause difficulties, then this procedure is done in a hospital setting.

Normally, the daily amount of urine should be proportional to the liquid drunk, per 1 kilogram of body weight: 20-50 ml for dogs, 20-30 ml for cats.

An increase in the volume of daily urine is called polyuria. The reasons may be:

• diabetes (sugar and insipidus);
• subsidence of edema;
• kidney infections;
• tumor neoplasms,
• metabolic disorders;
• hypercalcemia;
• liver dysfunction;
• inflammatory processes.

A decrease in daily urine output is called oliguria. Oliguria is caused by:

• gastrointestinal disorders (vomiting, diarrhea);
• the appearance of edema;
• small amount of fluid consumed.

Lack of urine (urinary retention) – anuria. A serious pathology, the cause of which may be shock, acute nephritis and advanced chronic kidney disease, blockage of canals with stones or tumors.

Specific gravity

Specific gravity (USG) or relative density shows the average amount of solid compounds dissolved in urine and characterizes the ability of the kidneys to thicken and dilute the fluid contents.

This indicator changes throughout the day and is affected by food and water intake, environmental temperature, medications, and the functional state of internal organs. When dehydrated, the discharge will be concentrated; with a high degree of hydration, it will be diluted. The density of urine is determined by special devices: a urometer, a hydrometer, a refractometer.

Normal specific gravity of urine: in dogs is 1.015 – 1.030 g/l, in cats – 1.020 – 1.035 g/l.

An increase in the density of urine is called hypersthenuria. May indicate dehydration, which may be caused by:

• large loss of fluid (fever, diarrhea, vomiting, profuse sweating);
• low water consumption;
• liver diseases.

The density of urine also increases with oliguria, kidney disease (acute nephritis), heart and kidney failure, accompanied by swelling of the legs and arms, and bacterial infections. At the same time, the level of protein in the urine often increases.

If the increased density is accompanied by an increase in the daily amount (polyuria), this is a pronounced symptom of diabetes mellitus. Every 1 percent of sugar in urine increases the specific gravity by 0.004 g/l.

The readings may be affected by medications, for example, radiocontrast agents or diuretics (mannitol, dextran).

A decrease in urine density is called hyposthenuria. Accompanies many kidney diseases (acute and chronic nephritis - “wrinkled kidney”, nephrosclerosis, chronic renal failure). For example, in severe nephrosclerosis, USG approaches a value of 0.010 and is complemented by oliguria.

A very low specific gravity, similar to that of water (1.002 - 1.001), occurs in diabetes insipidus. A decrease in density is also observed when taking diuretics, ketosis, and dystrophy.

Color

The color of urine (COL) is also determined by various factors: type of food, medications taken, amount of fluid taken, condition of internal organs.

The normal color of urine of cats and dogs is considered to be a uniform yellow color of various shades.

The table shows possible pathologies and natural causes of changes in urine color.

Table 1. Relationship between the color of urine and the state of the pet’s body

Color	Pathology	Norm
Colorless	Diabetes mellitus, polyuria, nephrosclerosis
		Increasing the amount of fluid consumed
		Natural color
	Fever, increased sweating	Dyes in food or medicines: riboflavin, furagin
	Oliguria	Reducing the amount of fluid
	Alkaline reaction to santonin, taking medications - antipyrine, phenazol, pyramidon
	-
	-
	Green-brown shades: diseases of the liver and biliary tract, release of bilirubin into the urine	Acid reaction to the administration of santonin
		-
		Taking sulfonamides, activated carbon
		-
	Hemoglobinuria, upon settling, separation occurs into a transparent and sedimentary dark part	Introduction of carbolic acid preparations
	Pyuria - leukocytes in the urine, pus, due to inflammatory processes (lipoid nephrosis, cystitis, polycystic disease, renal tuberculosis, phosphaturia, etc.)	-
		-
		-
		-
		Intravenous administration of methylene blue (for poisoning or diagnostic procedures)

It should be remembered that a sharp change in the color of urine due to food or medications is normally short-term. If the unnatural color persists for more than two days, this is a sign of disease.

Transparency, precipitation

The transparency of the urinary secretions of cats and dogs depends on the amount of dissolved salts, the reaction medium, and the presence of pathological phenomena in the body. The urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs is completely clear. To determine the level of transparency, the secretion is poured into a narrow glass vessel. Urine is considered transparent if printed text can be read through it.

If turbidity, flakes, or visible sediment are observed, this indicates inflammatory processes, the presence of bacteria, leukocytes, mucoid (mucus from the urinary canals), epithelial cells, salts, and red blood cells. Further analysis of the sediment will clarify the cause of the turbidity. In addition, the transparency and turbidity of the urine of cats and dogs depends on environmental and transportation conditions: with a decrease in temperature and long-term storage, a salt precipitate may form.

Consistency

This parameter is determined by slowly pouring the liquid into another container. In domestic breeds of cats and dogs, urine should flow in drops, i.e. have a thin, watery consistency.

Normally, the consistency of urine from cats and dogs is liquid.

In case of illness, the composition of urine changes; it can become thicker, even jelly-like and porridge-like. With cystitis, inflammation of the urinary tract, decreased diuresis, the consistency may become mucous.

Reaction

The reaction of urine (pH environment) determines the type of nutrition. In domestic cats and dogs it is slightly acidic, because... they eat mainly meat. When eating plant foods, urine becomes alkaline. In the morning on an empty stomach the levels will be the lowest, and the highest after eating.

Monitor changes in urine acidity if urolithiasis is suspected in order to identify the nature of stone formation: at pH< 5 образуются ураты, при значениях от 5,5 до 6 – оксалаты, выше 7,0 – фосфаты.

Also, the pH of urine is checked for endocrine disorders, dieting, taking diuretics, and neurological pathologies.

Acidity is checked with special litmus test strips. This is done immediately after collecting the material, before submitting it to the laboratory, because urine tends to become alkaline over time.

Normal pH values ​​for domestic cats and dogs are 5.5 - 7.

An increase in pH value means alkalization of the medium (pH >7). May indicate bacterial urinary tract infections, hyperkalemia, increased protein levels in the urine, metabolic disorders (alkalosis, hyperthyroidism), renal duct acidosis, chronic renal failure, and oncological processes in the genitourinary system.

A decrease in pH value means urine acidification (pH< 5). Это происходит при увеличении мяса в рационе, гипокалиемии, сахарном диабете, обезвоживании организма, голодании.

Smell

The smell of urine is caused by ongoing metabolic processes, the state of internal organs, the nature of the food, and the use of medications.

The normal smell of urine in domestic cats and dogs is specific and not strong.

The occurrence of an uncharacteristic odor in urine discharge may be due to a number of reasons listed below.

Table 2. The smell of urine and the reasons that caused it

Chemical indicators of urine analysis in domestic cats and dogs

Analysis of chemical elements allows us to identify organic and inorganic compounds in urine. It is performed using special reagent test strips or an analyzer. Chemical components of urine:

• protein level;
• glucose (sugar);
• bile pigments (bilirubin and urobilinogen);
• ketone bodies (acetone and acetoacetic acid);
• nitrites;
• red blood cells;
• hemoglobin.

Protein

Protein (PRO) is a product of cellular breakdown, so finding it in the urine is an alarming symptom. He states the presence of destructive inflammatory processes and disruption of organ systems. In normal urine it can be present only in the form of traces.

In normal urine of domestic cats and dogs, the protein level should not exceed 0.3 g/l

The loss of protein compounds into the urine is called proteinuria. This may be a temporary phenomenon (physiological proteinuria), which occurs after stress loads or hypothermia.

Protein fluctuations can also occur in the last days of pregnancy and in newborns in the first 72 hours. With physiological proteinuria, protein is found within the normal range of 0.2 - 0.3 g/l.

Glucose

Glucose (GLU) should not be present in the urine of healthy animals. Stressful conditions, ingestion of carbohydrate foods, childbirth, injury, and uncontrolled use of medications can provoke a physiological increase in sugar in the urine. However, this phenomenon is short-lived and disappears when the forming factor is removed.

Glucose in the urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs should not exceed 0.2 mmol/l.

An increase in glucose levels in urine is called glucosuria. At the same time, other characteristics also change: the urine becomes light, almost colorless, has an acidic environment, and quickly becomes cloudy. Pathological glycosuria can be provoked by a number of diseases:

1. Diabetes. At the same time, urine density increases and blood sugar levels rise.
2. Impaired renal tubular function (secretion, absorption, etc.)

Certain dog breeds, such as the Scottish Terrier, are predisposed to glucosuria.

Some dog breeds are predisposed to this type of disease: Scottish terrier, besenge, Scottish shepherd, Norwegian Elkhound, etc. In the case of dogs, diseases that cause increased blood glucose are:

1. Diseases of the nervous system, damage to the brain and spinal cord, distemper, rabies.
2. Toxic poisoning.

Sometimes test strips are not informative and may show incorrect results: in cats with cystitis a false positive response is possible, in dogs when taking ascorbic acid a false negative response is possible.

Bile pigments

Bile pigments include bilirubin (BIL) and its derivative urobilinogen (UROBIL). They are indicators of the functionality of the liver and bile ducts. In a healthy body, they should not be detected in the urine. May be present in dogs in the form of traces, especially in males.

The normal level of bilirubin in domestic cats is 0.0, in dogs - 0.0-1.0, and the level of urobilinogen in domestic cats is 0.0-6.0, in dogs - 0.0-12.0.

An increase in indicators may be a consequence of damage to the liver and bile ducts, jaundice, toxin poisoning, disorders in the digestive tract (enterocolitis, peptic ulcers, intestinal obstruction).

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies (KET) are acetone, acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid. They are synthesized in the liver during fasting, low-carbohydrate nutrition, stress, and fatty foods. Their function is to break down fats and maintain the body’s energy balance when there is a lack of glucose.

If ketone bodies appear in the urine, it acquires a pungent odor of acetone. This phenomenon is called ketonuria. There are no ketone bodies in a healthy body.

Normally, the urine of cats and dogs does not contain ketone bodies.

If glucose is detected simultaneously with ketonuria, then this is a criterion for diabetes mellitus. An increase in ketone bodies can also occur with oncological degeneration of the pituitary gland, comatose states, and severe intoxication.

Nitrites

Nitrites (NIT) are a waste product of pathogenic bacteria. Their presence in the urine indicates an infectious infection of the urinary tract.

The urine of healthy cats and dogs does not contain nitrites.

Analysis for nitrites is also done for diagnostic purposes in animals after operations on the genitourinary organs.

Red blood cells

The appearance of blood cells - red blood cells - in urine gives it shades of red. This is a serious symptom indicating injury and infection of the excretory system. In medicine this is called hematuria.

The urine of healthy cats and dogs does not contain red blood cells.

If blood appears in the first drops of urine during urination, then the urethra is injured; if in the last drops, the bladder is injured. In the presence of kidney stones, the blood increases when they move, combined with pain when palpated. At O If blood is detected in the animal’s urine, you should immediately contact a veterinary clinic.

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin (HGB) is a blood protein that enters the urine during the breakdown of red blood cells from exposure to hemolytic poisons. These are dangerous toxins such as arsenic, lead, insect and snake venom. Urine becomes dark brown, sometimes black. When settling, it separates into a transparent upper part and a dark sediment. The appearance of hemoglobin in the urine is called hemoglobinuria.

Normally, the urine of cats and dogs does not contain hemoglobin.

Reasons for the appearance of hemoglobin in urine:

The final part of the laboratory analysis of urine from cats and dogs is a microscopic examination of the sediment. It helps to differentiate genitourinary diseases. The objects of research are:

• crystalline sediments (salts);
• epithelial cells;
• leukocytes (white blood cells);
• erythrocytes (red blood cells);
• urinary cylinders;
• bacteria;
• mushrooms;
• slime.

Crystalline precipitation

Salt crystals precipitate when the urine reaction changes to the acidic or alkaline side. They are also observed in healthy animals and may appear when drugs are removed from the body. Some crystalline precipitates can diagnose diseases.

Table 3. Types of crystalline precipitation and associated diseases

Crystalline precipitate	Norm	Concomitant diseases
	No	Cystitis, pyelitis, dehydration, vomiting
	No	In large quantities - urolithiasis
	No	Alkalinization of urine, gastric lavage, vomiting, arthritis, rheumatism
	No Exceptions are Dalmatians	Cystitis, pyelitis, pyelonephritis
	Single	Can form oxalate kidney stones, pyelonephritis, calcium metabolism disorders, diabetes mellitus
	No	Inflammation of the small intestine
	No Occasionally found in Dalmatians and English bulldogs	Acidified urine, high fever, pneumonia, leukemia, high protein diet
	Single	Form urate stones, chronic kidney failure, glomerulonephritis
	No	Liver damage, leukemia, poisoning
	No	Damage to the nervous system, liver disease, intoxication
	No	Diseases of the liver and bile ducts, jaundice
	No	Pyelitis, echinococcus, fatty kidney degeneration
	No	Cytinosis, liver cirrhosis, hepatic coma, viral hepatitis
	No	Hepatitis, cystitis

Epithelial cells

Epithelial cells are usually divided into three types according to the place of their formation:

• genitals – flat;
• urinary tract (ureter, bladder, pelvis) – transitional;
• renal epithelium.

Normally, only single cells (0 – 2) of squamous epithelium can be present in the urine of cats and dogs; there should be no other epithelial cells.

To avoid inaccuracies in test results, carefully follow the veterinarian’s instructions and monitor your pet’s hygiene.

If the amount of squamous epithelium in the urine is increased, it may be:

• poor preparation for analysis, poor hygiene when collecting urine;
• inflammation of the vaginal mucosa (in females);
• squamous metaplasia.

If transitional epithelial cells are found in the urine, the cause may be:

• inflammation of the urinary tract: cystitis, urethritis, urolithiasis;
• intoxication;
• postoperative period;
• urinary tract tumors.

When renal epithelium appears in urine, kidney damage is indicated:

• pyelonephritis;
• nephritis;
• necrotic nephrosis;
• lipoid nephrosis;
• Kidney amyloidosis.

Leukocytes

Leukocytes are white blood cells that protect the body from foreign invasions. There should be very little of them in the urine of a healthy animal.

Normally, in the urine of cats and dogs, leukocytes should be 0 - 3 cells in the microscope field at 400x magnification.

An increase in the number of leukocytes more than 3 is called leukocyturia, more than 50 is called pyuria. The urine becomes cloudy and purulent.

An increased number of leukocytes is a sign of inflammation in the genitourinary area: cystitis, pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, pyometra, endometritis.

Red blood cells

Under a microscope, you can see more than just the presence or absence of red blood cells. Red blood cells may appear changed (without hemoglobin) and intact. The first ones diagnose kidney damage (bleeding, nephritis, kidney tumors). The latter appear when the urinary tract is damaged (urolithiasis, cystitis, etc.).

Normally, in the urine of domestic cats and dogs, there should be no more than 3 red blood cells in the field of view of the microscope.

Urinary cylinders

Urinary casts are protein formations that clog the lumens of the urinary canals. They are washed out with urine, while maintaining the shape of the canal. Depending on the cells that formed them, the cylinders are divided into different subtypes (epithelial, leukocyte, fat, etc.). The loss of casts of any kind in urine is a sign of pathological changes in the renal structures.

There should be no cylinders in the urine of healthy cats and dogs in the field of view of the microscope.

The loss of casts in the urine is called cylindruria. The shape and origin of the cylinders are used to judge the nature and area of ​​damage.

1. Hyaline cylinders are barely visible under a microscope, translucent, light gray in color. They can take on the color of a coloring pigment - red if there is blood in the urine or yellow if bilirubin is lost. They are formed by kidney protein, so their appearance in the urine is a sign of degenerative phenomena in the kidneys (nephrosis, pyelonephritis, etc.).
2. The waxy cylinders are dense, sometimes with cracks. They are formed from the surface cells of the renal tubules, which indicates their inflammation and degenerative decay.
3. Red blood cell casts are formed from blood cells - red blood cells. Formed during bleeding in the kidneys.
4. Leukocyte casts form white blood cells – leukocytes – using a similar principle. A sign of purulent inflammation in the genitourinary tract.
5. Bacterial casts are a collection of bacteria that clog the kidney ducts.
6. Granular cylinders are similar in appearance to grains - this is what disintegrating epithelium and coagulated protein look like. This is a sign of deep pathological changes in the structures of the kidney.

Cylinders are a sign of acidified urine, because When exposed to alkalis, they disintegrate.

Bacteria

In healthy animals, the secretions are sterile. If bacteria are found in the urine sediment under a microscope, this indicates either a violation of hygiene during the collection of the analysis, or an infectious infection of the genitourinary tract.

The quantity is of diagnostic importance: less than 1000 microbial bodies per ml of urine means contamination (in females it is normal), from 1000 - 10,000 - infection of the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis), over 10,000 - damage to the bladder and kidneys (pyelonephritis).

There should be no bacteria in the urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs within the field of view of a microscope.

If an infection is suspected, a bacteriological analysis of urine (tank culture) is performed. Cultures of urine bacteria are grown on a special medium, their type and sensitivity to drugs are determined.

Mushrooms

Microscopic examination of urine sediment may reveal yeast fungi of the genus Candida. The cause may be high sugar, antitumor drugs.

There should be no fungi in the urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs within the field of view of a microscope.

A urine test for fungi differentiates a mycotic infection, which is performed in a similar way to a bacterial test.

Fat

Fat (lipids) is found in urine in microdoses. Associated with the quality of feed and the level of metabolism in the animal.

Normally, fat is found in single drops in the urine of cats; in dogs, only traces.

An increase in the rate is called lipuria. This phenomenon is rare, indicates a pathology in the functioning of the kidneys, and may be a consequence of urolithiasis.

Slime

Mucus in urine is found in microdoses. It is synthesized by epithelial cells and increases during inflammation and infections.

In the urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs, mucus appears in small quantities.

Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid (VTC) does not accumulate in the body and is excreted in the urine, so its volume in urine can be used to judge the transport of vitamin C in the body, vitamin deficiency or overdose.

The urine of healthy domestic cats and dogs can contain up to 50 mg of vitamin C.

Sperm (sperm)

Sometimes, during catheterization of males (males and males), spermatozoa enter the urine, which can also be seen during microscopic analysis of urinary sediment. They have no diagnostic value. At the end of the study, the results of physical, chemical and microscopic studies are summarized in a single table. It shows the overall picture of the animal's health. Based on these data, the veterinarian makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment.

The norms for a general blood test in dogs are as follows:

Hemoglobin

The blood pigment of red blood cells that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Promotion:
- polycythemia (increased number of red blood cells)
- stay at high altitudes
- excessive physical activity
- dehydration, blood thickening
Decrease:
- anemia

Red blood cells

Nuclear-free formed elements of blood containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the formed elements of blood. The average for a dog is 4–6.5 thousand*10^6/l. Cats - 5-10 thousand * 10^6/l.
Increased (erythrocytosis):
- bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic kidney disease, neoplasms of the kidneys, liver, dehydration.
Decrease:
- anemia, acute blood loss, chronic inflammatory process, overhydration.

The sedimentation rate of erythrocytes in the form of a column when blood settles. Depends on the number of red blood cells, their “weight” and shape, and on the properties of the plasma - the amount of proteins (mainly fibrinogen), viscosity.
The norm is 0–10 mm/h.
Promotion:
- infections
- inflammatory process
- malignant tumors
- anemia
- pregnancy
No increase in the presence of the above reasons:
- polycythemia
- decrease in plasma fibrinogen levels.

Platelets

Blood platelets formed from giant cells of the bone marrow. Responsible for blood clotting.
Normal blood content is 190-550?10^9 l.
Promotion:
- polycythemia
- myeloid leukemia
- inflammatory process
- condition after removal of the spleen, surgical operations. Decrease:
- systemic autoimmune diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus)
- aplastic anemia
- hemolytic anemia

Leukocytes

White blood cells. Formed in red bone marrow. Function - protection against foreign substances and microbes (immunity). The average for dogs is 6.0–16.0?10^9/l. For cats - 5.5–18.0?10^9/l.
There are different types of leukocytes with specific functions (see leukocyte formula), so a change in the number of individual types, and not all leukocytes in general, is of diagnostic importance.
Increased - leukocytosis
- leukemia
- infections, inflammation
- condition after acute bleeding, hemolysis
- allergies
- with a long course of corticosteroids
Decreased - leukopenia
- some infections, bone marrow pathology (aplastic anemia)
- increased spleen function
- genetic abnormalities of immunity
- anaphylactic shock

Leukocyte formula

Percentage of different types of leukocytes.

1. Neutrophils

2.Eosinophils

Participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions. They are rare.
The norm is 0-1% of the total number of leukocytes.
Increase - basophilia
- allergic reactions to the introduction of a foreign protein, including allergies to food
- chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract
- hypothyroidism
- blood diseases (acute leukemia, lymphogranulomatosis)

4.Lymphocytes

The main cells of the immune system. Fight viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered own cells (recognize foreign proteins - antigens and selectively destroy cells containing them - specific immunity), release antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - substances that block antigen molecules and remove them from the body.
The norm is 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.
Increased - lymphocytosis:
- hyperthyroidism
- viral infections
- lymphocytic leukemia
Decreased - lymphopenia:
- use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants
- malignant neoplasms
- renal failure
- chronic liver diseases
- immunodeficiency states
- circulatory failure

The materials posted in this section are for educational purposes only, and in no form can serve as a basis for independently diagnosing and treating an animal.

If your animal gets sick, you first need to contact a veterinarian. Remember, it is impossible to make a correct diagnosis and cure an animal solely using the Internet. Any amateur activity on the part of the animal owner can cause irreparable harm to the health of the animal!

Indicators of blood and urine tests in dogs (with explanations)

Blood and urine tests

Normal hematological parameters in dogs

Index	Unit	Adults	Puppies
Hemoglobin
Red blood cells
Hematocrit
Leukocytes
Band neutrophils
Segmented neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Myelocytes
Reticulocytes
Red blood cell diameter
Platelets

Possible causes of deviations from normal hematological parameters.

Hemoglobin. Increase: some forms of hemoblastosis, in particular erythremia, dehydration. Decreased (anemia): various types of anemia, incl. due to blood loss.

Red blood cells. Increased: erythremia, heart failure, chronic lung diseases, dehydration. Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic and due to blood loss.

Hematocrit Increased: erythremia, cardiac and pulmonary failure, dehydration. Decreased: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic.

ESR. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, infections, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies, blood loss, injuries, surgical interventions.

Leukocytes. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, viral infections, invasions, blood loss, injuries, allergic reactions, tumors, myeloid leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia. Decreased: acute and chronic infections (rare), liver diseases, autoimmune diseases, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.

Neutrophils. Increased: inflammatory processes, poisoning, shock, blood loss, hemolytic anemia. Decreased: viral infections, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis. An increase in the number of band neutrophils, the appearance of myelocytes: sepsis, malignant tumors, myeloid leukemia.

Eosinophils. Increased: allergic reactions, sensitization, invasions, tumors, hematological malignancies.

Basophils. Increase: hemoblastosis.

Lymphocytes. Increased: infections, neutropenia (relative increase), lymphocytic leukemia.

Monocytes. Increased: chronic infections, tumors, chronic monocytic leukemia.

Myelocytes. Detection: chronic myeloid leukemia, acute and chronic inflammatory processes, sepsis, bleeding, shock.

Reticulocytes. Increase: blood loss, hemolytic anemia Decrease: hypoplastic anemia.

Red blood cell diameter. Increased: B12 and folate deficiency anemia, liver disease. Decreased: iron deficiency and hemolytic anemia.

Platelets. Increased: myeloproliferative diseases. Decreased: acute and chronic leukemia, liver cirrhosis, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, allergies, intoxication, chronic infections.

Normal urine values

Index	Units	Norm
Quantity	ml/kg/day	24-41
Color		yellow
Transparency		transparent
Density	g/ml	1.015-1.050
Protein	mg/l	0-30
Glucose		0
Ketone bodies		0
Creatinine	g/l	1-3
Amylase	units Somogy	50-150
Bilirubin		footprints
Urobilinogen		footprints
pH	units	5.0-7.0
Hemoglobin		0
Red blood cells		0-units
Leukocytes		0-units
Cylinders		0-units

Possible causes of deviations from normal urine values

Color. Normally, urine is yellow in color. A decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates increased urine concentration, for example due to dehydration (oliguria). Urine acquires a green color as a result of the release of bilirubin. The color of urine changes after taking certain vitamins.

Transparency. Normal urine is clear. Cloudy urine occurs when bacteria, white blood cells, red blood cells, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are secreted. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube is probably caused by urate. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then add a few drops of acetic acid to the test tube. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the cloudiness disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate. The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after shaking the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.

Density. Increased: oliguria, glucosuria, proteinuria. Decreased: polyuria.

Protein. Increase: kidney disease, hemolysis, meat diet, cystitis.

Glucose. Detection: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, kidney disease, administration of glucocorticoids, cystitis.

Ketone bodies(acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetic acid). Detection: Diabetic ketonuria, fever, fasting, low carbohydrate diet.

Creatinine. Decreased: renal failure.

Amylase. Increased: acute pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, hepatitis.

Bilirubin. Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis), liver disease, impaired flow of bile into the intestines, fever, fasting.

Urobilinogen. Detection in significant quantities: hemolysis, liver disease, increased activity of intestinal microflora. Absence: impaired flow of bile into the intestines.

pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Urine alkalinity may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline medications, chronic urinary tract infection, metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased breakdown of proteins, administration of acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.

Hemoglobin. Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood. Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria can occur with hemolysis of red blood cells in weakly concentrated and old urine.

Red blood cells. Detection in significant quantities (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning, kidney infarction, inflammatory diseases, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, dioctophimosis.

Leukocytes. Detection in significant quantities: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract.

Cylinders. Detection in significant quantities: damage to the renal parenchyma, proteinuria (hyaline casts), hematuria (erythrocyte casts), hemoglobinuria (pigment casts), pyelonephritis (leukocyte casts).

Normal blood biochemical parameters

Index	An object	Units	Values
Glucose	serum	g/l	0.6-1.2
Total protein	serum	g/l	54-78
Albumin	serum	g/l	23-34
Globulins	serum	g/l	27-44
pH	blood	units	7.31-7.42
Lipids	plasma	g/l	0.47-07.25
Cholesterol	serum	g/l	1.25-2.50
Creatinine	serum	mg/l	10-22
Urea nitrogen	serum	mg/l	100-200
Total bilirubin	serum	mg/l	0.7-6.1
Direct bilirubin	serum	mg/l	0-1.4
Bilirubin indirect	serum	mg/l	0.7-6.1
Amylase	serum	units Somogy	< 800
Calcium	serum	mg/l	70-116
Phosphorus, inorganic	serum	mg/l	25-63
Magnesium	serum	mg/l	18-24
Iron	serum	mg/l	0.94-1.22

Possible causes of deviations from normal biochemical parameters.

Glucose. Increased: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, administration of glucocorticoids, stress, pancreatic necrosis. Decreased: insulinoma, insulin overdose, hypoadrenocorticism.

Total protein. Increased: chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, paraproteinemic hemoblastosis, dehydration. Decreased: nephrotic syndrome, enteritis, pancreatitis, burns, blood loss, fasting, hypovitaminosis, heart failure, edema, malignant neoplasms.

Albumins: see Total Protein.

Globulins. Increased: acute and chronic inflammatory processes, malignant neoplasms, autoimmune diseases, trauma, myocardial infarction. Decreased: malignant neoplasms, chronic inflammatory processes, allergies.

pH. Not only the pH of the blood matters, but also the alkaline reserve. An increase in blood pH and an increase in alkaline reserve indicate alkalemia and metabolic alkalosis, for example, due to loss of chlorides through vomiting and diarrhea. Hyperventilation of the lungs, due to the accelerated elimination of CO2, causes respiratory alkalosis. A decrease in blood pH and a decrease in alkaline reserve indicate acidemia and metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis can occur due to diarrhea, renal failure, accumulation of ketone bodies (acetonemia), administration of certain medications (calcium chloride, methionine, salicylates), and the formation of excess lactic acid during heavy and prolonged physical activity. Respiratory acidosis is caused by hypoventilation of the lungs due to an increase in CO2 concentration in the blood.

Lipids. Increased: hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, hypopreinemia as a result of renal failure and gastrointestinal diseases, administration of glucocorticoids, liver disease, high-lipid diet.

Cholesterol. See Lipids.

Creatinine. Increased: renal dysfunction.

Urea nitrogen. Increased: impaired renal function, impaired urine excretion, digestion and absorption of large amounts of protein in the intestines, fever, dehydration, acute liver dystrophy. Decreased: liver cirrhosis.

Direct bilirubin(passed through the liver). Increased: hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, liver tumors, liver dystrophy.

Bilirubin indirect(not passed through the liver, unbound). Increased: hemolysis, B12 hypovitaminosis.

Amylase. Increased: pancreatitis, renal failure, hyperadrenocorticism.

Calcium. Increased: hyperparathyroidism, increased calcium intake, hypoadrenocorticism, thyroid dysfunction, renal failure, tumors, periostitis, overdose of vitamin D and some diuretics. Decreased: hypoparathyroidism, azotemia

Update: April 2018

Blood tests can not only clarify or refute a diagnosis made on the basis of a clinical examination, but also reveal hidden pathologies in various organs. It is not recommended to neglect this type of diagnosis.

What blood tests are done in dogs?

There are two main blood tests performed on dogs:

• biochemical;
• clinical (or general).

Clinical blood test (or general hemogram)

The most important indicators:

• hematocrit;
• hemoglobin levels;
• red blood cells;
• color indicator;
• platelets;
• leukocytes and leukocyte formula (expanded).

Material for research

Blood for research is taken from a venous volume of up to 2 ml. It must be placed in a sterile tube treated with anticoagulants (sodium citrate or heparin), which prevent the blood from clotting (in fact, the formed elements stick together).

Blood chemistry

Helps to identify hidden pathological processes in the dog’s body. With a comprehensive analysis and comparison with the clinical signs obtained during the examination, it is possible to accurately determine the location of the lesion - a system or a specific organ. The purpose of blood biochemistry analysis is to reflect the work of the body's enzymatic system on the state of the blood.

Basic indicators:

• glucose level;
• total protein and albumin;
• urea nitrogen;
• ALT and AST (ALat and ASat);
• bilirubin (total and direct);
• creatinine;
• lipids with cholesterol separately;
• free fatty acids;
• triglycerides;
• lipase level;
• alpha amylase;
• creatine kinase;
• alkaline and acid phosphatases;
• GGT (gamma-glutamyltransferase);
• lactate dehydrogenase;
• electrolytes (potassium, total calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, chlorine).

Material for analysis

To carry out the analysis, venous blood is taken on an empty stomach and before the start of any medical or physiotherapeutic procedures. The required volume is up to 2 ml. Whole blood is used to determine pH, blood plasma is used to determine lipids, and blood serum is used for all other indicators. Collection sites: earlobe, veins or paw pads. Sampling is carried out in sterile tubes.

How to take a blood test?

Characteristics of the main physiological indicators of blood analysis in dogs

Clinical blood test in dogs

• Hematocrit Shows the total volume of all blood cells in the blood mass (simply density). Usually only red blood cells are taken into account. An indicator of the ability of blood to carry oxygen to cells and tissues.
• Hemoglobin (Hb,Hgb). A complex blood protein whose main function is the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the cells of the body. Regulates acid-base levels.
• Red blood cells. Red blood cells containing heme protein (hemoglobin) and representing the bulk of the cellular mass of blood. One of the most informative indicators.
• Color indicator. Literally expresses the average color intensity of red blood cells based on their hemoglobin content.
• Average concentrations and content of hemoglobin in erythrocytes indicate how densely red blood cells are saturated with hemoglobin. Based on these indicators, the type of anemia is determined.
• ESR(erythrocyte sedimentation rate). Indicates the presence of a pathological process in the body. It does not indicate the location of the pathology, but always deviates either during illness or after (during the recovery period).
• Leukocytes. White blood cells, which are responsible for the body's immune response and for its protection against all kinds of pathological agents. Different types of leukocytes make up the leukocyte formula - the ratio of different types of leukocytes to their total number as a percentage. Decoding all indicators has diagnostic value when analyzing all items. Using this formula, it is convenient to diagnose pathologies in the process of hematopoiesis (leukemia). Include:
  • neutrophils: the direct task is protection against potential infections. There are two types in the blood - young cells (band cells) and mature cells (segmented cells). Depending on the number of all these cells, the leukocyte formula can shift to the right (there are more mature ones than immature ones) or to the left (when band cells predominate). In dogs, it is the number of immature cells that matters for diagnosis.
  • eosinophils responsible for the manifestation of allergic reactions;
  • basophils recognize foreign agents in the blood, helping other leukocytes “determine their work”;
  • lymphocytes– the main link in the body’s overall immunological response to any disease;
  • monocytes They are engaged in removing already dead foreign cells from the body.

• Myelocytes are located in the hematopoietic organs and are isolated leukocytes, which in a normal state should not appear in the blood.
• Reticulocytes– young or immature red blood cells. They remain in the blood for a maximum of 2 days, and then transform into ordinary red blood cells. It's bad when they are not found at all.
• Plasmocytes are a structural cell of lymphoid tissue responsible for the production of immunoglobulins (proteins responsible for a specific immune response). Should not be observed in the peripheral blood of a healthy dog.
• Platelets. These cells are responsible for the process of hemostasis (stopping blood during bleeding). It is equally bad when their excess or deficiency is detected.

Biochemistry of dog blood

• pH- one of the most strictly constant blood indicators, a slight deviation of which in any direction indicates severe pathologies in the body. With fluctuations of only 0.2-0.3 units, the dog may experience coma and death.
• Level glucose indicates the state of carbohydrate metabolism. Glucose can also be used to judge the functioning of a dog’s pancreas.
• Total protein with albumin. These indicators reflect the level of protein metabolism, as well as liver function, because albumins are produced in the liver and are involved in the transport of various nutrients, maintaining oncotic pressure in the internal environment.
• Urea- a protein breakdown product produced by the liver and excreted by the kidneys. The results indicate the functioning of the hepatobiliary and excretory systems.
• ALT and AST (ALaT and ASat)– intracellular enzymes involved in the metabolism of amino acids in the body. Most of AST is found in skeletal muscles and the heart, ALT is also found in the brain and red blood cells. Found in large quantities in muscle or liver pathologies. They increase and decrease in inverse proportion to each other, depending on the violations.
• Bilirubin (direct and total). It is a by-product formed after the breakdown of hemoglobin. Direct - which passed through the liver, indirect or general - did not pass. Based on these indicators, one can judge pathologies accompanied by active breakdown of red blood cells.
• Creatinine- a substance that is completely excreted by the kidneys. Together with creatinine clearance (a urine test parameter), it provides a clear picture of kidney function.
• General lipids and cholesterol itself– indicators of fat metabolism in the dog’s body.
• By level triglycerides judge the work of fat-processing enzymes.
• Level lipases. This enzyme is involved in the processing of higher fatty acids and is present in many organs (lungs, liver, stomach and intestines, pancreas). Based on significant deviations, one can judge the presence of obvious pathologies.
• Alpha amylase breaks down complex sugars, produced in the salivary glands and pancreas. Diagnoses diseases of relevant organs.
• Alkaline and acid phosphatases. The alkaline enzyme is found in the placenta, intestines, liver and bones, the acidic enzyme is found in the prostate gland in males, and in the liver, red blood cells and platelets in females. An increased level helps determine diseases of the bones, liver, prostate tumors, and active breakdown of red blood cells.
• Gamma glutamyl transferase– a very sensitive indicator for liver disease. It is always deciphered in combination with alkaline phosphatase to determine liver pathologies (abbr. GGT).
• Creatine kinase consists of three different components, each of which is found in the myocardium, brain and skeletal muscle. With pathologies in these areas, an increase in its level is observed.
• Lactate dehydrogenase widely distributed in all cells and tissues of the body, its amount increases with massive tissue injuries.
• Electrolytes (potassium, total calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, chlorine) are responsible for the properties of membranes based on electrical conductivity. Thanks to the electrolyte balance, nerve impulses reach the brain.

Standard blood parameters (tables of test results) in dogs

Clinical blood parameters

The name of indicators (units)	Normal for puppies (up to 12 months)	Normal for adult dogs
Hematocrit (%)	23-52	37-55
Hb (g/l)	70-180	115-185
Red blood cells (million/µl)	3,2-7,5	5,3-8,6
Color indicator	-*	0,73-1,06
Average hemoglobin content in erythrocyte (pg)	-	21-27
Average hemoglobin concentration in erythrocyte (%)	-	33-38
ESR (mm/h)	-	2-8
Leukocytes (thousand/µl)	7,2-18,6	6-17
Young neutrophils (% or units/μl)	-	0-4
	0-400	0-300
Mature neutrophils (% or units/μl)	63-73	60-78
	1350-11000	3100-11600
Eosinophils (% or units/μl)	2-12	2-11
	0-2000	100-1200
Basophils (% or units/μl)	-	0-3
	0-100	0-55
Lymphocytes (% or units/μl)	-	12-30
	1650-6450	1100-4800
Monocytes (% or units/μl)	1-10	3-12
	0-400	160-1400
Myelocytes
Reticulocytes (%)	0-7,4	0,3-1,6
Plasmocytes (%)
Platelets (thousand/µl)	-	250-550

* not determined because it has no diagnostic value.

Biochemical blood parameters

Indicator name	Units	Norm
glucose level	mmol/l	4,2-7,3
pH		7,35-7,45
protein	g/l	38-73
albumins	g/l	22-40
urea	mmol/l	3,2-9,3
ALT (ALaT)	Chalk	9-52
AST (ASaT)		11-42
total bilirubin	mmol/l	3,1-13,5
direct bilirubin		0-5,5
creatinine	mmol/l	26-120
general lipids	g/l	6-15
cholesterol	mmol/l	2,4-7,4
triglycerides	mmol/l	0,23-0,98
lipase	Chalk	30-250
ɑ-amylase	Chalk	685-2155
alkaline phosphatase	Chalk	19-90
acid phosphatase	Chalk	1-6
GGT	Chalk	0-8,5
creatine phosphokinase	Chalk	32-157
lactate dehydrogenase	Chalk	23-164
Electrolytes
phosphorus	mmol/l	0,8-3
total calcium		2,26-3,3
sodium		138-164
magnesium		0,8-1,5
potassium		4,2-6,3
chlorides		103-122

Blood tests in dogs (transcript)

The reading of blood counts should only be carried out by a specialist, because all obtained data are considered in complex in relation to each other, and not each separately. Possible pathologies are given in the tables below.

* has no diagnostic value.

Blood biochemistry

The name of indicators	Promotion	Demotion
pH	alkalemia (pathological increase in alkalis in the bloodstream); prolonged diarrhea and vomiting; respiratory alkalosis (excessive release of carbon dioxide).	acetonemia (acetone in the blood); renal failure; respiratory acidosis (increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood);
glucose level	kidney disease; pathologies in the pancreas and liver; Cushing's syndrome (increased levels of glucocorticoids); diabetes;	prolonged hunger; severe poisoning; overdose of insulin drugs.
protein	multiple myeloma; state of dehydration.	hunger; dysfunction of absorption in the intestinal gastrointestinal tract; burns; bleeding; renal disorders.
albumins	dehydration.
urea	urinary tract obstruction and kidney pathology; excessive protein intake from feed.	diet unbalanced in protein; pregnancy; incomplete absorption of proteins in the intestine.
ALT (ALaT)	active breakdown of liver and muscle cells; large burns; drug toxicosis of the liver.	-*
AST (ASaT)	heatstroke; liver cell damage; burns; signs of developing heart failure.	traumatic rupture of liver tissue; hypovitaminosis B6; advanced necrosis.
total bilirubin	liver cell breakdown; blockage of the bile ducts.	-
direct bilirubin	stagnation of bile due to narrowing of the bile ducts; purulent liver lesions; canine leptospirosis (babesiosis); chronic liver pathologies.	-
creatinine	hyperfunction of the thyroid gland; problems with the kidneys.	muscle loss with age; puppiness.
lipids	diabetes; pancreatitis; hypothyroidism; glucocorticoid therapy; liver diseases.	-
cholesterol	cardiac ischemia; liver pathologies.	unbalanced feeding; malignant tumors; liver diseases.
triglycerides	diabetes; liver diseases accompanied by its decomposition; pancreatitis; cardiac ischemia; pregnancy; increased intake of fats and carbohydrates into the body.	prolonged hunger; acute infections; hyperthyroidism; administration of heparin, overdose of ascorbic acid; obstructive pulmonary disease.
lipase	severe pathologies of the pancreas, including oncology.	pancreatic or stomach cancer without metastases.
ɑ-amylase	diabetes; inflammation of the peritoneum; damage to the salivary glands.	decreased secretory function of the pancreas; thyrotoxicosis.
alkaline phosphatase	puppiness; liver diseases; bone pathologies; acceleration of bone metabolism.	hypothyroidism; hypovitaminosis of vitamins C and B 12; anemia.
acid phosphatase	malignant tumors of the prostate gland (in males); bone tumors; hemolytic anemia (in bitches).	-
GGT	hyperthyroidism; pathology of the pancreas; liver dysfunction (especially with a simultaneous increase in alkaline phosphatase).	-
creatine phosphokinase	the first day after myocardial infarction; muscular dystrophy; decay of brain tissue in oncology; arthritis; strokes; after anesthesia; intoxication; heart failure.	-
lactate dehydrogenase	week after myocardial infarction; liver pathologies; hemolytic anemia; cancerous tumors; skeletal muscle injuries; long-term necrosis.	-
Electrolytes
phosphorus	bone decay; healing of bone fractures; disorders in the endocrine system; vitamin D hypervitaminosis; renal failure.	lack of vitamin D in the body; excess calcium in the body; violation of phosphorus absorption; lack of growth hormone.
total calcium	hyperfunction of the parathyroid gland; water depletion; hypervitaminosis D; oncology.	lack of vitamin D; lack of magnesium; kidney dysfunction; hypothyroidism
sodium	excessive consumption of salt in feed; salt imbalance; loss of intracellular water molecules.	diabetes; obvious pathologies in the kidneys; heart failure.
magnesium	diabetic acidosis (acetone in the blood due to diabetes); kidney failure.	aldosteronism (excess of aldosterone, an adrenal hormone, in the blood); chronic enteritis.
potassium	active cellular decay; water depletion; renal failure.	long hunger; kidney problems; diarrhea; debilitating vomiting.
chlorine	dehydration; type 2 diabetes; renal and liver failure; acidosis; - respiratory alkalosis.	ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity); continued vomiting; kidney inflammation; influence of diuretics and corticosteroids.

* has no diagnostic value.

Any blood tests performed on dogs not only clarify the clinical diagnoses, but also reveal hidden chronic pathologies, as well as pathologies at the beginning of development that do not yet have obvious symptoms.

see also

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