Age periodization according to D. B

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Introduction

The theory of the crisis of science developed by Vygotsky is not only of historical interest. It is still relevant today in terms of developing the Marxist doctrine of scientific knowledge as a socially determined, dialectically contradictory process with its peaks and troughs, crisis and revolutionary situations.

The question of the nature of crises and ways to resolve them today also attracts methodologists of science in the countries of the world. For example, the interpretation of crisis phenomena in science by the American historian of science T. Kuhn is widely known.

According to Kuhn, a crisis flares up when facts-anomalies that are incompatible with the dominant paradigm accumulate. By eroding it, they are preparing a revolution in science. Eventually, the old paradigm collapses, and the scientific community rallies around the new paradigm.

Analyzing the development of psychology, Vygotsky revealed other determinants of crisis phenomena. He rejected the positivist idea of ​​"pure" facts (behind which was the version that the source of knowledge is sensory data, and not objective reality reflected in sensory experience and comprehended through consciousness).

After all, scientific research can operate only with such facts that have undergone conceptual processing. Already naming the object, we classify it, single out with the help of the word-tool in an infinite variety of signs that are essential in a certain respect. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982

Since the “processing power” comes from thinking immersed in an object independent of it, the conceptual processing of a fact is nothing more than a more adequate, more meaningful (than at the pre-conceptual level) cognitive reconstruction of this object.

Crises of mental development are an unusually interesting and controversial object of psychological analysis. L.S. Vygotsky wrote that if crises had not been discovered experimentally, they should nevertheless have been set theoretically. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982.

The basis for such an understanding of the logic of development is the thesis that the development of a child is a dialectical process in which the transition from one stage to another takes place in a revolutionary way, and not in an evolutionary way.

During these periods, in a relatively short period of time, cardinal changes occur in the development of the child, and the changes are not latent, but definitely noticeable to others, visual.

However, in observation and experiment, we are always confronted with purely individual, particular manifestations in the behavior of the child. Not a single act of behavior, taken in its individuality and biographical uniqueness, is representative of the age crisis as a complete act of development.

It is this feature of the dynamics of development during periods of crisis that makes it insufficient to analyze them only on the basis of the available symptoms.

The change from one stable period to another has traditionally been characterized as a period of difficulty in bringing up a child. By itself, such a statement of the question, focusing on the difficulties in raising a child, indicates the absolutization of the destructive component of the crisis.

Is not it. Bozhovich, developing the fundamental approaches of cultural-historical theory, formulates the position according to which the peculiarity of the social situation of development in relation to children who are in a critical period is that they are already internally ripe in order to be included in new forms of life, and external circumstances prevent this by keeping the child in the system of previous relationships. Developmental and pedagogical psychology./ Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984

crisis child age Vygotsky

Crisis definition according to L.S. Vygotsky

The developmental crisis is the next main element in the child's developmental mechanism.

L. S. Vygotsky understood the developmental crisis as the concentration of sharp and capital shifts and shifts, changes and fractures in the personality of the child. A crisis is a turning point in the normal course of mental development. It arises when “when the internal course of child development has completed a certain cycle and the transition to the next cycle will necessarily be a turning point ...” Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982. P. 384.

A crisis is a chain of internal changes in a child with relatively minor external changes. The essence of each crisis, he noted, is the restructuring of the inner experience that determines the child's attitude to the environment, the change in the needs and motives that drive his behavior.

This was also pointed out by L.I. Bozhovich, according to the opinion that the cause of the crisis is the dissatisfaction of the new needs of the child (Bozhovich L.I., 1979). The contradictions that make up the essence of the crisis can proceed in an acute form, giving rise to strong emotional experiences, disturbances in the behavior of children, in their relationships with adults.

The crisis of development means the beginning of the transition from one stage of mental development to another. It occurs at the junction of two ages and marks the end of the previous age period and the beginning of the next.

The source of the emergence of the crisis is the contradiction between the growing physical and mental capabilities of the child and the previously established forms of his relationship with the people around him and the types (methods) of activity. Each of us has experienced manifestations of such crises.

The puberty crisis was the first to be described in the scientific literature. Later, the crisis of three years was opened. Still later, the crisis of seven years was studied.

Along with them, the crisis of the newborn and the crisis of one year are distinguished. Thus, from the moment of birth to the period of adolescence, a child experiences five periods of crisis.

The positive and negative content of the crisis according to L.S. Vygotsky

Any crisis has two sides that must be taken into account, revealing its psychological content and significance for the subsequent development of the child.

The first of these is the destructive side of the crisis. Child development includes the processes of coagulation and death. The emergence of the new necessarily means the death of the old.

The processes of the withering away of the old are concentrated mainly in crisis ages. But the negative side of the crisis is the reverse, shadow side of the positive, constructive side.

“Constructive processes are always carried out here, positive changes occur, which constitute the main meaning of each critical period,” emphasizes V.V. Davydov (Davydov V.V., 1986, p. 76).

A crisis, according to Vygotsky, does not arise when new facts collide with the dominant structure of knowledge, but when a need arises, generated and stimulated by practice, for the transition from particular theoretical schemes to more general ones, introducing these particular schemes into a context in which their concepts - facts reveal a deep categorical meaning. Developmental and pedagogical psychology./ Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984.

In a period when the general scheme has not yet taken shape, but the time for this has already matured, as we have seen, private concepts rush to its place. Their confrontation is marked by the external picture of the crisis, which first of all catches the eye.

According to Kuhn, there is neither commonality nor connection between the old and the new paradigm. There cannot be an inclusion relationship between them. One excludes the other.

Vygotsky's approach makes it possible to understand the dialectics of evolutionary (cumulative) and revolutionary moments in the development of positive knowledge. To understand the nature and meaning of the crisis in science, it is necessary, according to Vygotsky, to go beyond the relationship between theories and facts in the movement of scientific knowledge. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982

It is not in itself that the discrepancy between the theoretical and the empirical stimulates and directs this movement. The forces operating within science itself act at the level of applied research directly related to practice - educational, industrial, medical, etc.

It is practice that requires the construction of such a methodology, without which the very scientific and practical impact on a person cannot be effective.

By crises, as is known, we mean transitional periods from one stage of child development to another. Crises arise at the junction of two ages and mark the end of the previous stage of development and the beginning of the next.

Each systemic neoplasm, arising in response to the needs of the child, includes an affective component and therefore carries a motivating force.

That is why the central systemic neoplasm for a given age, which is, as it were, a generalized result, the result of the entire psychological development of the child in the corresponding period, does not remain neutral with respect to further development, but becomes the starting point for the formation of the personality of the child of the next age.

This gives the right to consider crises as turning points in the ontogenetic development of the individual, the analysis of which will reveal the psychological essence of this process. Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1972

In child psychology, three critical periods are most often mentioned: the crisis of 3, 7 and 12-16 years, the latter is often referred to as the crisis of adolescence. L. S. Vygotsky analyzed another crisis of one year, and divided the adolescent one into two phases: negative (13-14 years old) and positive (15-17 years old) Developmental and Pedagogical Psychology. / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984..

If we consider these crises from the point of view of the changes that occur in the behavior of the child, then all of them are characterized by some common features.

During critical periods, children become naughty, capricious, irritable: they often come into conflict with surrounding adults, especially parents and caregivers; they have a negative attitude towards previously fulfilled requirements, reaching stubbornness and negativism.

All these features of children going through a critical period speak of their frustration. Frustration, as you know, arises in response to the derivation of some essential human needs.

Therefore, we can conclude that at the junction of two ages, such a reaction is given by children who do not satisfy or even actively suppress those new needs that appear at the end of each stage of mental development along with the central, i.e., personal, neoformation of the corresponding age. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982

Crises of age development are the result of the deprivation of those needs of the child that arise in him by the end of each age period, along with the main, personal neoplasm.

Each age stage is characterized by a special position of the child in the system of relations accepted in a given society. In accordance with this, the life of children of different ages is filled with specific content: special relationships with people around them and a special activity leading for a given stage of development - play, learning, work.

At each stage, there is also a certain system of rights that the child enjoys and duties that he must fulfill.

The nature of the position occupied by a child is determined, on the one hand, by the objective needs of society, and on the other hand, by the ideas that exist in a given society about the child’s age capabilities and what he should be like.

These ideas are formed spontaneously on the basis of long historical experience, and although the stages of children's life established on their basis are somewhat different in societies with different concrete historical formations, in their main features they are similar to each other and correspond to the actual course of children's development. Developmental and pedagogical psychology./ Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984.

Each child, regardless of the characteristics of his individual development and degree of readiness, having reached a certain age, is placed in the appropriate position accepted in a given society and thereby falls into the system of objective conditions that determine the nature of his life and activity at a given age stage.

It is vitally important for the child to meet these conditions, since only in this case can he feel at the height of his position and experience emotional well-being.

Conclusion

So we can draw the following conclusions:

First, it is characterized by the vagueness of the boundaries separating the beginning and end of the crisis from adjacent ages. Therefore, it is important for parents, teachers, educators or pediatricians to know the psychological picture of the crisis, as well as the individual characteristics of the child that leave their mark on the course of the crisis.

Secondly, we are faced with the difficulty of educating children at this moment due to the fact that “the change in the pedagogical system applied to the child does not keep pace with the rapid changes in his personality” Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982.

Conflicts with adults at this time occur more often, and with them come painful and painful experiences. A three-year-old child for some time becomes stubborn, capricious, obstinate and self-willed. A seven-year-old child at this time becomes unbalanced, unrestrained and capricious.

In thirteen-year-old adolescents, working capacity decreases, former interests fade and often die off, and behavior becomes negative (Davydov V.V., 1986). In general, it should be borne in mind that the stage of crisis is always accompanied by a decrease in the rate of progress of the child in the course of education.

At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the nature of the course of the crisis largely depends on specific life situations. If parents, educators, teachers and other significant people for the child take into account the changes taking place in him in a timely manner and build their attitude in accordance with them, then the course of the crisis is greatly mitigated.

As A. N. Leontiev noted, “in reality, crises are by no means inevitable companions of mental development. It is not crises that are inevitable, but fractures, qualitative shifts in development. On the contrary, a crisis is evidence of a break, a shift that did not take place in a timely manner. There may not be crises at all if the mental development of the child does not develop spontaneously, but is a reasonably controlled process - the process of education "Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1972.

The presence of crisis periods in the development of the child implies the existence of stable periods. If they are characterized by the progressive development of the child, then the development of the crisis itself is negative, destructive. There is a fading of the progressive character of development. Perhaps that is why L. N. Tolstoy called this time “a desert of loneliness”.

List of used literature

1. Developmental and pedagogical psychology./ Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984.

2. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works. In 6 vols. T. 1. M .: Pedagogy, 1982.

3. Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1972.

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Age crises are special, relatively short in time (up to a year) periods of ontogeny, characterized by sharp mental changes. They refer to the normative processes necessary for the normal progressive course of personal development (Erickson).

The form and duration of these periods, as well as the severity of the flow, depend on individual characteristics, social and microsocial conditions. In developmental psychology, there is no consensus about crises, their place and role in mental development. Some psychologists believe that development should be harmonious, crisis-free. Crises are an abnormal, “painful” phenomenon, the result of improper upbringing. Another part of psychologists argues that the presence of crises in development is natural. Moreover, according to some ideas in developmental psychology, a child who has not truly experienced a crisis will not fully develop further. Bozhovich, Polivanova, Gail Sheehy addressed this topic.

L.S. Vygotsky considers the dynamics of transitions from one age to another. At different stages, changes in the child's psyche can occur slowly and gradually, or they can happen quickly and abruptly. Stable and crisis stages of development are distinguished, their alternation is the law of child development. A stable period is characterized by a smooth course of the development process, without sharp shifts and changes in the Personality of the r-ka. Long in duration. Insignificant, minimal changes accumulate and at the end of the period give a qualitative leap in development: age-related neoplasms appear, stable, fixed in the structure of the Personality.

Crises do not last long, a few months, under unfavorable circumstances stretching up to a year or even two years. These are brief but turbulent stages. Significant shifts in development, the child changes dramatically in many of its features. Development can take on a catastrophic character at this time. The crisis begins and ends imperceptibly, its boundaries are blurred, indistinct. The aggravation occurs in the middle of the period. For the people around the child, it is associated with a change in behavior, the appearance of "difficulty in education". The child is out of control of adults. Affective outbursts, whims, conflicts with loved ones. Schoolchildren's working capacity decreases, interest in classes weakens, academic performance decreases, sometimes painful experiences and internal conflicts arise.

In a crisis, development acquires a negative character: what was formed at the previous stage disintegrates, disappears. But something new is also being created. Neoplasms turn out to be unstable and in the next stable period they transform, are absorbed by other neoplasms, dissolve in them, and thus die off.

D.B. Elkonin developed the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky on child development. “A child approaches each point in his development with a certain discrepancy between what he has learned from the system of relations man - man, and what he has learned from the system of relations man - object. It is precisely the moments when this discrepancy takes on the greatest magnitude that are called crises, after which the development of the side that lagged behind in the previous period takes place. But each of the parties is preparing the development of the other.

neonatal crisis. Associated with a sharp change in living conditions. A child from comfortable habitual conditions of life gets into difficult ones (new nutrition, breathing). Adaptation of the child to new conditions of life.

Crisis 1 year. It is associated with an increase in the child's capabilities and the emergence of new needs. A surge of independence, the emergence of affective reactions. Affective outbursts as a reaction to misunderstanding on the part of adults. The main acquisition of the transitional period is a kind of children's speech, called L.S. Vygotsky autonomous. It is significantly different from adult speech and in sound form. Words become ambiguous and situational.

Crisis 3 years. The border between early and preschool age is one of the most difficult moments in a child's life. This is destruction, a revision of the old system of social relations, a crisis in the allocation of one's "I", according to D.B. Elkonin. The child, separating from adults, tries to establish new, deeper relationships with them. The appearance of the phenomenon “I myself”, according to Vygotsky, is a new formation “the external I myself”. "The child is trying to establish new forms of relationship with others - a crisis of social relations."

L.S. Vygotsky describes 7 characteristics of a 3-year crisis. Negativism is a negative reaction not to the action itself, which he refuses to perform, but to the demand or request of an adult. The main motive for action is to do the opposite.

The motivation of the child's behavior changes. At 3 years old, for the first time, he becomes able to act contrary to his immediate desire. The behavior of the child is determined not by this desire, but by relationships with another, adult person. The motive for behavior is already outside the situation given to the child. Stubbornness. This is the reaction of a child who insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he himself told adults about it and demands that his opinion be taken into account. Obstinacy. It is directed not against a specific adult, but against the entire system of relations that developed in early childhood, against the norms of upbringing accepted in the family.

The tendency towards independence is clearly manifested: the child wants to do everything and decide for himself. In principle, this is a positive phenomenon, but during a crisis, a hypertrophied tendency towards independence leads to self-will, it is often inadequate to the child's capabilities and causes additional conflicts with adults.

For some children, conflicts with their parents become regular, they seem to be constantly at war with adults. In these cases, one speaks of a protest-revolt. In a family with an only child, despotism may appear. If there are several children in the family, instead of despotism, jealousy usually arises: the same tendency to power here acts as a source of jealous, intolerant attitude towards other children, who have almost no rights in the family, from the point of view of the young despot.

Depreciation. A 3-year-old child may begin to swear (old rules of behavior are depreciated), discard or even break a favorite toy offered at the wrong time (old attachments to things are depreciated), etc. The child's attitude to other people and to himself changes. He is psychologically separated from close adults.

The crisis of 3 years is associated with the awareness of oneself as an active subject in the world of objects, the child for the first time can act contrary to his desires.

Crisis 7 years. It may start at age 7, or it may shift to 6 or 8 years. The discovery of the meaning of a new social position - the position of a schoolchild associated with the implementation of highly valued by adults educational work. The formation of an appropriate internal position radically changes his self-awareness. According to L.I. Bozovic is the period of the birth of social. "I" of the child. A change in self-consciousness leads to a reassessment of values. There are profound changes in terms of experiences - stable affective complexes. It appears that L.S. Vygotsky calls the generalization of experiences. A chain of failures or successes (in school, in broad communication), each time experienced by the child in approximately the same way, leads to the formation of a stable affective complex - a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, hurt pride or a sense of self-worth, competence, exclusivity. Thanks to the generalization of experiences, the logic of feelings appears. Experiences acquire a new meaning, connections are established between them, the struggle of experiences becomes possible.

This gives rise to the inner life of the child. The beginning of the differentiation of the external and internal life of the child is associated with a change in the structure of his behavior. A semantic orienting basis of an act appears - a link between the desire to do something and the unfolding actions. This is an intellectual moment that makes it possible to more or less adequately assess the future act in terms of its results and more distant consequences. Semantic orientation in one's own actions becomes an important aspect of inner life. At the same time, it excludes the impulsiveness and immediacy of the child's behavior. Thanks to this mechanism, the childish spontaneity is lost; the child thinks before acting, begins to hide his feelings and hesitations, tries not to show others that he is ill.

A purely crisis manifestation of the differentiation of the external and internal life of children usually becomes antics, mannerisms, artificial stiffness of behavior. These external features, as well as the tendency to whims, affective reactions, conflicts, begin to disappear when the child emerges from the crisis and enters a new age.

Neoplasm - arbitrariness and awareness of mental processes and their intellectualization.

Pubertal crisis (11 to 15 years old) associated with the restructuring of the child's body - puberty. The activation and complex interaction of growth hormones and sex hormones cause intense physical and physiological development. Secondary sexual characteristics appear. Adolescence is sometimes referred to as a protracted crisis. In connection with the rapid development, difficulties arise in the functioning of the heart, lungs, blood supply to the brain. In adolescence, the emotional background becomes uneven, unstable.

Emotional instability enhances the sexual arousal that accompanies puberty.

Gender identity reaches a new, higher level. Orientation to models of masculinity and femininity in behavior and manifestation of personal properties is clearly manifested.

Due to the rapid growth and restructuring of the body in adolescence, interest in one's appearance sharply increases. A new image of the physical "I" is being formed. Because of its hypertrophied significance, the child is acutely experiencing all the flaws in appearance, real and imaginary.

The image of the physical "I" and self-consciousness in general is influenced by the pace of puberty. Children with late maturation are in the least advantageous position; acceleration creates more favorable opportunities for personal development.

A sense of adulthood appears - a feeling of being an adult, the central neoplasm of younger adolescence. There is a passionate desire, if not to be, then at least to appear and be considered an adult. Defending his new rights, a teenager protects many areas of his life from the control of his parents and often comes into conflict with them. In addition to the desire for emancipation, a teenager has a strong need for communication with peers. Intimate-personal communication becomes the leading activity during this period. Adolescent friendships and association in informal groups appear. There are also bright, but usually successive hobbies.

Crisis 17 years (from 15 to 17 years). It arises exactly at the turn of the usual school and new adult life. It can move up to 15 years. At this time, the child is on the threshold of real adult life.

The majority of 17-year-old schoolchildren are oriented towards continuing their education, a few - towards job searches. The value of education is a great blessing, but at the same time, achieving the goal is difficult, and at the end of the 11th grade, emotional stress can increase dramatically.

For those who have been going through a crisis for 17 years, various fears are characteristic. Responsibility to yourself and your family for the choice, real achievements at this time is already a big burden. To this is added the fear of a new life, of the possibility of error, of failure when entering a university, and for young men, of the army. High anxiety and, against this background, pronounced fear can lead to neurotic reactions, such as fever before graduation or entrance exams, headaches, etc. An exacerbation of gastritis, neurodermatitis, or another chronic disease may begin.

A sharp change in lifestyle, inclusion in new activities, communication with new people cause significant tension. A new life situation requires adaptation to it. Two factors mainly help to adapt: ​​family support and self-confidence, a sense of competence.

Aspiration to the future. The period of stabilization of the Personality. At this time, a system of stable views on the world and one's place in it is formed - a worldview. Known associated with this youthful maximalism in assessments, passion in defending their point of view. Self-determination, professional and personal, becomes the central new formation of the period.

Crisis 30 years. Around the age of 30, sometimes a little later, most people experience a crisis. It is expressed in a change in ideas about one's life, sometimes in a complete loss of interest in what used to be the main thing in it, in some cases even in the destruction of the former way of life.

The crisis of 30 years arises due to the unrealized life plan. If at the same time there is a “reassessment of values” and a “revision of one's own Personality”, then we are talking about the fact that the life plan turned out to be wrong in general. If the life path is chosen correctly, then attachment “to a certain Activity, a certain way of life, certain values ​​and orientations” does not limit, but, on the contrary, develops his Personality.

The crisis of 30 years is often called the crisis of the meaning of life. It is with this period that the search for the meaning of existence is usually associated. This quest, like the whole crisis, marks the transition from youth to maturity.

The problem of meaning in all its variants, from private to global - the meaning of life - arises when the goal does not correspond to the motive, when its achievement does not lead to the achievement of the object of need, i.e. when the goal was set incorrectly. If we are talking about the meaning of life, then the general life goal turned out to be erroneous, i.e. life intention.

Some people in adulthood have another, “unscheduled” crisis, which does not coincide with the border of two stable periods of life, but arises within this period. This so-called crisis 40 years. It's like a repetition of the crisis of 30 years. It occurs when the crisis of 30 years has not led to a proper solution of existential problems.

A person is acutely experiencing dissatisfaction with his life, the discrepancy between life plans and their implementation. A.V. Tolstykh notes that a change in attitude on the part of colleagues at work is added to this: the time when one could be considered “promising”, “promising” is passing, and a person feels the need to “pay bills”.

In addition to the problems associated with professional activity, the crisis of 40 years is often caused by the aggravation of family relations. The loss of some close people, the loss of a very important common side of the life of spouses - direct participation in the lives of children, everyday care for them - contributes to the final understanding of the nature of marital relations. And if, apart from the children of the spouses, nothing significant connects both of them, the family may break up.

In the event of a crisis of 40 years, a person has to once again rebuild his life plan, develop a largely new “I-concept”. Serious changes in life can be associated with this crisis, up to a change in profession and the creation of a new family.

Retirement Crisis. First of all, the violation of the habitual regime and way of life has a negative effect, often combined with a sharp sense of contradiction between the remaining ability to work, the opportunity to be useful and their lack of demand. A person turns out to be, as it were, “thrown to the sidelines” of the current life without his active participation in the common life. The decline in one's social status, the loss of the life rhythm that has been preserved for decades, sometimes leads to a sharp deterioration in the general physical and mental state, and in some cases even to relatively quick death.

The crisis of retirement is often aggravated by the fact that around this time the second generation grows up and begins to live an independent life - grandchildren, which is especially painful for women who have devoted themselves mainly to the family.

Retirement, which often coincides with the acceleration of biological aging, is often associated with a worsening financial situation, sometimes a more secluded lifestyle. In addition, the crisis may be complicated by the death of a spouse, the loss of some close friends.

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Introduction

Infancy

Early age

preschool age

Junior school age

Adolescence

adolescence

Introduction

The periodizations of development, which consider the reasons and driving forces of development as a basis, traditionally include the periodizations of L.S. Vygotsky and D.B. Elkonin. Consider the periodization of the development of D.B. Elkonin as the most developed classification.

D.B. Elkonin considered the child as an integral person, actively learning about the world around him: the world of objects and the world of people. There are, therefore, two systems of relations: child-thing and child-adult. However, a thing, having certain physical properties, also carries socially developed ways of using it, ways of acting with it. Thus, a thing is a social object, the actions with which the child must learn with the help of an adult. An adult appears to the child not only as a person, but as a representative of a certain society, having social roles, attitudes, motives, action stereotypes, including upbringing stereotypes. Therefore, an adult is a social adult. The child's activity within the systems "child - social object" and "child - social adult" is a single process in which his personality is formed. However, making up a single process of mastering the systems "child - object" and "child - adult", within the framework of the leading activity of a given age, one of the systems comes to the fore, occupying a dominant position. Consequently, the leading activities replacing each other determine the sequential alternation of the predominantly “child-object” and “child-adult” systems.

Periodization of age development D.B. Elkonin

The child approaches each point in his development with a certain discrepancy between what he has learned from the system of relations man-man and what he has learned from the system man-object. It is precisely the moments when this discrepancy takes on the greatest magnitude that are called crises, after which the development of the side that lagged behind in the previous period takes place. But each side prepares the development of the other.

What is the theoretical and practical significance of the hypothesis about the periodicity of the processes of mental development?

Firstly, this periodization shows the relationship between intellectual (cognitive) development and the formation of a person's personality as a social individual. Secondly, this hypothesis makes it possible to consider the process of mental development not as linear, but as going in an ascending spiral. Thirdly, it opens the way to the study of the connections that exist between individual periods, to the establishment of the functional significance of any previous period for the onset of the next one. Fourthly, the hypothesis is aimed at such a division of mental development into epochs and stages, which corresponds to the internal laws of this human development.

Consider the periodization of D.B. Elkonin, dwelling in more detail at each stage of development, in order.

Infancy

The social situation of the inseparable unity of the child and the adult contains a contradiction: the child needs the adult to the maximum and, at the same time, has no specific means of influencing him. This contradiction is resolved throughout the entire period of infancy. The resolution of this contradiction leads to the destruction of the social situation of development that gave rise to it.

The social situation of the common life of the child with the mother leads to the emergence of a new type of activity - direct emotional communication between the child and the mother. As studies by D.B. Elkonin and M.I. Lisina, a specific feature of this type of activity is that the subject of this activity is another person. But if the subject of activity is another person, then this activity is communication. What matters is not what people do with each other, emphasized D.B. Elkonin, but the fact that another person becomes the subject of activity. Communication of this type in infancy is very pronounced. On the part of the adult, the child becomes the subject of activity. On the part of the child, one can observe the emergence of the first forms of influence on the adult. So, very soon the voice reactions of the child acquire the character of an emotionally active call, whimpering turns into a behavioral act directed at an adult. This is not yet speech in the proper sense of the word, as long as these are only emotionally expressive reactions.

Communication during this period should be emotionally positive. Thus, the child creates an emotionally positive tone, which is a sign of physical and mental health.

The specific reaction of a smile to the mother's face is an indication that the social situation of the child's mental development has already taken shape. This is a social situation of bonding between a child and an adult. L.S. Vygotsky called it a social situation "WE". According to L.S. Vygotsky, the child is like an adult paraplegic who says: "We ate", "We took a walk." Here we can talk about the inseparable unity of the child and the adult. The child is nothing can without an adult. The life and activities of the child are, as it were, woven into the life and activities of the adult caring for him. In general, this is a situation of comfort, and the central element of this comfort is an adult. As D. B. Elkonin noted, a pacifier and rocking are ersatz , substitutes for an adult, telling the child: “Everything is calm!”, “Everything is in order!”, “I am here.”

At first glance it seems that the development of actions is a spontaneous process. Indeed, it would seem that a child of the first year of life can hardly be taught anything, but a person turned out to be more cunning. D.B. Elkonin said that a man came up with programmed education for children of the first year of life a long time ago. These are toys in which the actions that the child must carry out with their help are programmed. Manipulating a child with toys is a covert cooperative activity. Here the adult is present not directly, but indirectly, as if programmed into the toy.

Grasping, directing towards an object stimulates the occurrence of sitting. When the child sits down, other objects open in front of him. There are objects that cannot be touched. Again, the law of anticipatory acquaintance of the child with the world, anticipatory orientation, manifests itself. The child reaches for the object, it is attractive, but it can only be obtained with the help of an adult.

The study of the emergence of a sign function in ontogenesis shows that for its formation it is necessary to develop sympractical communication, that is, communication in the course of “aggregate activity” (D.B. Elkonin’s term). Therefore, for child psychology, the search for the roots of the sign function depends on solving the problem of the formation of joint activity.

By 9 months (the beginning of the crisis of the 1st year), the child gets on his feet, begins to walk. As emphasized by D.B. Elkonin, the main thing in the act of walking is not only that the child's space expands, but also that the child separates himself from the adult. For the first time there is a fragmentation of a single social situation "We", now it is not the mother who leads the child, but he leads the mother wherever he wants. Walking is the first of the main neoplasms of infancy, marking a break in the old situation of development.

The second main neoplasm of this age is the appearance of the first word. The peculiarity of the first words is that they are in the nature of pointing gestures. Walking and enrichment of objective actions require speech that would satisfy communication about objects. Speech, like all neoplasms of age, is of a transitional nature. This is an autonomous, situational, emotionally colored speech, understandable only to relatives. This speech is specific in its structure, consisting of fragments of words. Researchers call it "the language of nannies." But whatever this speech may be, it represents a new quality that can serve as a criterion for the fact that the old social situation of the child's development has disintegrated. Where there was unity, there were two: an adult and a child. A new content has grown between them - objective activity.

Summing up the first stage of child development, we can say that from the very beginning there are two interrelated lines of human development: the line of development of orientation in the meanings of human activity and the line of development of orientation in the ways of human activity. The development of one opens up new opportunities for the development of the other. There is a clear, main line of development for each age. However, the main new formations, leading to the breakdown of the old social situation of development, are formed along a different line, which is not a guide in a given period, they appear, as it were, latently. But this orientation will determine development in the next age period. The main task of raising a child during this period (the period of infancy) is to maximize and develop the child's broad orientation in the surrounding reality. As D.B. Elkonin, any early creation of a finished functional system takes a piece in the central nervous system and then it needs to be rebuilt. It is important that functional systems are built on an enriched indicative basis.

Early age

As emphasized by D.B. Elkonin, at the end of the first year of life, the social situation of complete fusion of a child with an adult explodes from within. Two people appear in it: a child and an adult. This is the essence of the crisis of the first year of life. At this age, the child acquires a certain degree of independence: the first words appear, the child begins to walk, actions with objects develop. However, the range of possibilities of the child is still very limited. Firstly, speech is autonomous in nature: words are situational, they are only fragments of our words, words are polysemantic, polysemantic. In addition, the autonomous speech itself contains a contradiction. This speech is a means of communication addressed to another, but, as a rule, it is still devoid of permanent meanings. Secondly, in almost every action that a child performs with one or another object, it is as if an adult is present. And, above all, it is present through the construction of objects with which the child manipulates. As emphasized by D.B. Elkonin, this phenomenon is exceptional, it is observed only at the end of infancy. It does not occur at older ages. Not on a single human object, D.B. Elkonin, the method of using it is not written, the social method of using the object should always be disclosed to the child. But since it cannot yet be shown to an infant, objects have to be constructed that, by their physical properties, determine the way children act. While manipulating objects, focusing on their physical properties, the child, however, cannot himself discover socially developed ways of using objects.

The child himself, on his own, is never able to discover the social essence, the social function, the social way of using objects.

In the removed form, the tool contains the purpose for which it should be used. Ideas about the goal, about the final result, do not initially exist as data and orienting actions of the child. They arise only as a result of the implementation of the objective action itself. Only after the child drinks water from the cup does he have a goal - to drink water from the cup. Only after the child has learned to use a tool does he have goals that begin to orient the child's actions with objects. Thus, the goal must be isolated as a result of action in a particular situation.

In the joint objective action of the child and the adult, initially everything is merged. The very way of orienting the action, like the goal, is also not given in the form of some kind of abstract model, but exists within the action of the child with the adult; only a gradual division of action occurs in the course of development. All mental processes are formed on the basis of objective action, therefore, to understand objective action means to understand development.

In a joint objective action, its goal and object orientation, execution and evaluation are initially merged.

D.B. Elkonin considered the development of objective action at an early age in two main directions. This is, firstly, the development of an action from joint action with an adult to independent performance and, secondly, the development of means and methods for orienting the child himself in the conditions of the implementation of an objective action.

At the first stages of the development of objective action, mastering the social functions of the object and those goals that can be achieved with a certain socially established method of using the object is possible only in the course of joint activity.

As shown by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov, an adult takes the child's hands in his own and performs an action with them (brings a spoon to the child's mouth). And orientation, and execution, and control, and evaluation of the action are on the side of the adult. Then there is a partial or jointly divided action. The adult only starts the action, and the child finishes it. As soon as a divided action appears, we can say that the goal of the objective action has come to light: the child knows what will happen as a result of the performance of the action. Next, it becomes possible to perform an action based on the impression. This is an extremely important step. The adult has separated the orienting part of the action from the executive part and wants the child to do it too. This separation, as emphasized by D.B. Elkonin is produced by an adult, so the process is by no means spontaneous, not spontaneous.

D.B. Elkonin rightly noted that, along with tools, toys play an important role in mastering objective actions. A toy is an object that simulates any object in the adult world. In relation to toys, there is no rigid logic in their use, and an adult does not impose a way of acting with them on a child. Toys are multifunctional, you can do anything with them. Because of these properties of the toy, the orienting side of the action is separated from the executive side. Thanks to the action with the toy, the situation is also included in the orientation. As a result, further schematization of the action occurs. The child begins to compare his action with the actions of an adult, he begins to recognize in his action the actions of an adult, and for the first time begins to call himself the name of an adult: "Petya-dad." Thus, the transfer of action contributes to the separation of the child from the adult, comparing himself with him, identifying himself with the adult. The social situation thus begins to disintegrate. The role of an adult increases in the eyes of a child. The adult begins to be perceived by the child as a carrier of patterns of human action. This is possible only as a result of micro-changes in the objective action.

Finally, as a result of the transition of action from joint to independent, the adult retains control and evaluation of the action performed by the child, and they constitute the content of communication between the child and the adult about objective actions.

When the disintegration of a single objective action occurs and the adult is separated from the child, the child sees the adult and his actions as models for the first time. It turns out that the child acts like an adult, not with him, not under the guidance of an adult, but like him.

By the end of this age, the child uses his objective actions to establish contacts with an adult; with the help of an objective action, the child tries to call an adult for communication. When, with the help of a mastered action, a child calls an adult to play, communication again arises as an activity, the object of which for the child is an adult. In the same way as the objective action develops, D.B. Elkonin, the formation of speech also occurs. The word at an early age acts as a tool for the child, which, however, he uses much more often than any other tool. Precisely because the word at this age acts as a tool, there is an extremely intensive development of speech. In almost two or three years, a child masters his native language, and in a bilingual environment, two. Like the mastery of any other tool, the word is differentiated, saturated with objective meaning and, thanks to its transfer to other situations, is torn off from the object and generalized. The role of images and toys in this process is great. L.S. Vygotsky wrote that by the power of one thing it is necessary to steal the name from another. This is what happens in visual activity and play. To date, the following main trends in the development of speech in a young child are known.

Passive speech in development is ahead of active speech. The stock of passive speech affects the enrichment of the active vocabulary. First, the child understands the words-instructions, then he begins to understand the words-names, later comes the understanding of instructions and instructions, and finally, the understanding of stories, that is, the understanding of contextual speech.

The intensive development of speech at an early age indicates that speech, according to D.B. Elkonin, should be considered not as a function, but as a special object that the child masters in the same way as he masters other tools (spoon, pencil, etc.). The development of speech is a “twig” in the development of independent objective activity.

preschool age

D.B. Elkonin believed that the main psychological neoplasms of preschool age are:

1) The emergence of the first schematic outline of a whole child's worldview A child cannot live in disorder. Everything that he sees, the child tries to put in order, to see the regular relationships in which such a fickle world around him fits. J. Piaget showed that a child in preschool age develops an artificalist worldview: everything that surrounds the child, including natural phenomena, is the result of human activity. Such a worldview is linked to the entire structure of preschool age, in the center of which is a person.

Building a picture of the world, the child invents, invents a theoretical concept. He builds schemes of a global character, ideological schemes. D.B. Elkonin notices here the paradox between the low level of the child's intellectual abilities and the high level of his cognitive needs.

2) The emergence of primary ethical instances "What is good and what is bad" These ethical instances grow next to the aesthetic "Beautiful cannot be bad."

3) The emergence of subordination of motives. At this age, one can already observe the predominance of deliberate actions over impulsive ones. Overcoming immediate desires is determined not only by the expectation of a reward or punishment from the adult, but also by the child's own promise (the "given word" principle). Thanks to this, such personality traits as perseverance and the ability to overcome difficulties are formed; there is also a sense of duty towards other people.

4) The emergence of arbitrary behavior. Arbitrary behavior is behavior mediated by a particular representation. D.B. Elkonin noted that at preschool age, the image orienting behavior first exists in a specific visual form, but then it becomes more and more generalized, acting in the form of a rule or norm. Based on the formation of voluntary behavior in a child, according to D.B. Elkonin, there is a desire to control himself and his actions.

5) The emergence of personal inquiry - the emergence of consciousness of one's limited place in the system of relations with adults. The preschooler has an awareness of the possibilities of his actions, he begins to understand that not everything can (the beginning of self-esteem). Speaking of self-awareness, they often mean the awareness of one's personal qualities (good, kind, evil, etc.). In this case, we are talking about awareness of one's place in the system of social relations. 3 years - external "I myself", 6 years - personal self-consciousness. Here, the outside turns into the inside.

Under the leadership of D.B. Elkonin conducted an interesting experiment.

There are a lot of matches in front of the child. The experimenter asks to take one at a time and shift them to another place. The rules are deliberately made meaningless.

The subjects were children 5, 6, 7 years old. The experimenter watched the children through Gesell's mirror. Children who are getting ready for school scrupulously do this work and can sit at this lesson for an hour. Smaller children continue to move matches for a while, and then they begin to build something. The youngest bring their own task to these activities. When saturation occurs, the experimenter enters and asks to work more: “Let's agree, we’ll do this bunch of matches and that’s it.” And the older child continued this monotonous, meaningless work, because he agreed with the adult. The experimenter said to children of middle preschool age: "I will leave, but Pinocchio will remain." The child's behavior changed: he looked at Pinocchio and did everything right. If you perform this action several times with a substitute link, then even without Pinocchio, the children obey the rule. This experiment showed that behind the fulfillment of the rule lies a system of relations between a child and an adult. When a child obeys a rule, he meets the adult with joy.

So, for the implementation of the rule, D.B. Elkonin, there is a system of social relations between a child and an adult. First, the rules are executed in the presence of an adult, then with the support of an object that replaces the adult, and, finally, the rule becomes internal. If the observance of the rule did not include a system of relations with an adult, then no one would ever follow these rules. The readiness of the child for schooling involves the "growing" of the social rule, emphasized D.B. Elkonin, however, there is no special system for the formation of internal rules in the modern system of preschool education.

At this age, the phenomenon of egocentrism, or centering, appears. In order for the transition from pre-operational thinking to operational thinking to become possible, it is necessary for the child to move from centering to decentering. Centering means that the child can only see the whole world from his own point of view. There are no other points of view for the child at first. A child cannot take the standpoint of science and society.

Exploring the phenomenon of centration, D.B. Elkonin suggested that in the role-playing collective game, that is, in the leading type of activity of a preschool child, the main processes associated with overcoming "cognitive egocentrism" take place. Frequent switching from one role to another in a variety of children's games, the transition from the position of a child to the position of an adult leads to a systematic "shattering" of the child's ideas about the absoluteness of his position in the world of things and people and creates conditions for the coordination of different positions. This hypothesis was tested in the study by V.A. Nedospasova.

Thanks to decentration, children become different, the subject of their thoughts, their reasoning becomes the thought of another person. No learning is possible until the teacher's thought becomes the subject of the child's reasoning. Decentration is formed in such a way that at first many centrations are formed, then there is a differentiation of oneself from the other and his point of view without actually becoming aware of it, but only assuming it.

So, by the end of preschool age, we have three lines of development.

1 - line of formation of arbitrary behavior,

2 - the line of mastering the means and standards of cognitive activity,

3 - the line of transition from egocentrism to decentration. Development along these lines determines the child's readiness for schooling.

To these three lines, which were analyzed by D.B. Elkonin, it is necessary to add the child's motivational readiness for schooling. As shown by L.I. Bozovic, the child strives for the function of a student. So, for example, during the "playing school" children of younger ages take on the function of a teacher, older preschoolers prefer the role of students, since this role seems to them especially significant.

By the age of 7, a number of complex formations arise, which lead to the fact that the difficulties of behavior change dramatically and radically, they are fundamentally different from the difficulties of preschool age.

Such neoplasms as pride, self-esteem remain, but the symptoms of the crisis (manipulation, antics) are transient. In the crisis of seven years, due to the fact that differentiation of the internal and external arises, that for the first time a meaningful experience arises, an acute struggle of experiences also arises. A child who does not know whether to take bigger or sweeter candies is not in a state of internal struggle, although he hesitates. The internal struggle (contradictions of experiences and the choice of one's own experiences) becomes possible only now.

elkonin age mental neoplasm

Junior school age

Teaching is the leading activity for all school ages, but the specificity of each age is determined by which aspects of reality the child masters in the course of learning. This determines the leading activity of each school age. Thus, at primary school age, the child masters the "objective" reality, that is, the knowledge fixed in the training courses. In contrast to early childhood, at primary school age, the child masters, through teaching, that objective reality that goes far beyond the limits of his personal direct experience. Junior school age - the age of entry into educational activities, mastering its structural components

There is a restructuring of the entire system of the child's relationship with reality, as emphasized by D.B. Elkonin. A preschooler has two spheres of social relations: "child - adult" and "child - children". These systems are connected by game activity. The results of the game do not affect the relationship of the child with the parents, the relationship within the children's team also does not determine the relationship with the parents. These relationships exist in parallel, they are connected by hierarchical links. One way or another, it is important to consider that the well-being of the child depends on intra-family harmony.

A new structure of these relations emerges at school. The system "child - adult" is differentiated:

"child-teacher"

"child - adult"

"child - children" "child - parents"

Adolescence

Adolescence should be considered not as a separate stage, but in the dynamics of development, since without knowledge of the patterns of development of the child in ontogeny, the contradictions that make up the strength of this development, it is impossible to identify the mental characteristics of a teenager. Such a study is based on an activity approach, which considers the development of a personality, as a process the driving force of which is, firstly, the resolution of internal contradictions, and secondly, a change in types of activity, which determines the restructuring of existing needs and the emergence of new ones. In the process of studying

domestic psychologists (L.S. Vygodsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, etc.) found out that the leading activity for adolescence is the assimilation of the norms of relationships, which are most fully expressed in socially useful activities.

Thus, the study of adolescence is a very complex, long and multifaceted process that has not been completed to this day. Until now, there is no unambiguous understanding of all its features, disputes between psychologists do not stop. But, despite this, we can highlight the main points that determine the adolescent period of development, note its main characteristics.

As D.B. Elkonin, self-change in adolescence arises and begins to be realized first psychologically, as a result of the development of educational activity, the development of the cognitive sphere, and is only reinforced by physical changes. However, in our opinion, it is the psychophysiological changes that provoke changes in the cognitive sphere at the basic level, although D.B. Elkonin for the second time.

Consistently high indicators of variability in boys and a change in the ascillation coefficient in girls (a clear increase in the ascillation coefficient by 14.5 years and a decrease by 15.5 years). It was found that the individual indicators of variability of boys, significantly differing from each other, are generally stable, while the indicators of girls, which usually do not differ from each other by a high rate of ascillation, at 14.5 years old give the maximum values ​​of variability, increasing both in individual and in general terms. Such an abrupt manifestation of high variability in girls is expressed during a period of rapid pubertal growth, characterized by instability of interests, emotional outbursts, sudden mood swings, a moment of change, increased vulnerability and increasing potential of girls' personality. This age indicator in girls (14.5 years) coincides with the critical transition from adolescence to adolescence (according to the periodization of D.B. Elkonin).

According to the concept of D.B. Elkonin, adolescence, like any new period, is associated with neoplasms that arise from the leading activity of the previous period. Educational activity makes a “turn” from focusing on the world to focusing on oneself. By the end of primary school age, the child has new opportunities, but he does not yet know what he is. Solving the question "What am I?" can only be found by confronting reality. Features of the development of a teenager at this age are manifested in the following symptoms:

Difficulties arise again in relations with adults: negativism, stubbornness, indifference to the assessment of success, leaving school, since the main thing for the child now happens outside of school.

Children's companies (search for a friend, search for someone who can understand you).

The child begins to keep a diary. Many of the researchers reported on “secret notebooks and diaries” in which the teenager “finds an exceptionally free refuge, where no one and nothing constrains him. Left to himself, he freely and independently expresses his inner, sometimes deeply intimate experiences, exciting thoughts, doubts and observations.

Comparing himself with an adult, a teenager comes to the conclusion that there is no difference between him and an adult. He begins to demand from others that he is no longer considered small, he realizes that he also has rights. The central neoplasm of this age is the emergence of the idea of ​​oneself as “not a child”; a teenager begins to feel like an adult, strives to be and be considered an adult, he rejects his belonging to children, but he still does not have a feeling of genuine, full-fledged adulthood, but there is a huge need for recognition of his adulthood by others.

In the periodization of D.B. Elkonin, just as in the theory of L.S. Vygotsky, adolescence, like any psychological age, is associated with the emergence of something new in development. However, these new formations, in his opinion, arise from the leading activity of the previous period. Educational activity produces a “turn” of the child from focusing on the world to focusing on himself. By the end of primary school age, the child has new opportunities, but he does not yet know what he is. Solving the question "Who am I?" can only be found by confronting reality. At the beginning of adolescence, in the system of developmental education (according to Elkonin - Davydov), educational activity moves to a new, higher level. It becomes an activity aimed at self-education and self-improvement of students.

Objective adulthood is manifested in the readiness of the child to live in a society of adults as an equal participant.

· Elements of objective adulthood in adolescence can be seen in the attitude of adolescents to learning and work, to parents and peers, to children and the elderly. They reveal themselves:

o in the intellectual sphere - independence in the assimilation of knowledge, the desire for self-education;

o in the social and moral sphere - help and support for adults, defending one's own views, conformity of moral and ethical ideas to the real behavior of a teenager;

o in romantic relationships with peers of the opposite sex - forms of spending free time (dates, parties, dances);

in appearance - following the fashion in clothes, in behavior, in speech ("buzzwords").

Subjective adulthood, or a sense of adulthood, is characterized by the appearance of a teenager's attitude towards himself not as a small child, but as an adult. The main indicators of a sense of adulthood are:

o manifestations of the need for respect, trust, recognition of independence;

the desire to protect some areas of their lives from the intervention of adults;

o the presence of their own line of behavior, despite the disagreement of adults or peers.

adolescence

Adolescence is one of the most confused and controversial in psychological and pedagogical ideas and theories. The confusion and inconsistency of ideas can be explained (as well as adolescence) by the becoming character of age itself in the history of civilization. According to D.B. Elkonin (1996) about the historical content of childhood, both adolescence and adolescence are historically young and therefore have not acquired their cultural and historical form and development mechanisms. As a result, a researcher describing this age period is forced to speak either in the language of a project (“What is the “ideal” youthful age?”), Or to describe all the variety of paths of change that the “observed” boys and girls go through. In other words, the object of study itself is historically young and has not yet acquired its cultural and historical form.

That is why ideas about adolescence and youthful ages are not based on the results of scientific research, but only reflect the existing system of education and training, i.e. determined by educational institutions (D.B. Elkonin, 1971; L.S. Vygotsky, 1984; A.A. Markosyan, 1974; L.I. Bozhovich, 1995; D.I. Feldshtein, 1996, etc.)".

In Soviet psychology Elkonin D.B. considered the importance of communication in adolescence and senior school age from the standpoint of cultural-historical theory. Elkonin noted that in adolescence, communication is the leading activity, but even in adolescence it does not lose its significance. Thanks to communication, the guys build relationships, are included in various activities.

Elkonin calls the period from 11 to 17 years "adolescence", subdividing it into two phases. The leading activity of 11-15-year-olds (middle school age) Elkonin considers communication in the system of socially useful activities, including such collectively performed forms as social-organizational, sports, artistic and labor. Within this activity, adolescents acquire the ability to build communication depending on the various tasks and requirements of life, the ability to navigate in personal characteristics in the qualities of other people, the ability to consciously obey the norms adopted in the team. For 15-17 year olds (senior school age), educational and professional activities become the leading one (although communication still remains the leading one), thanks to which high school students form certain cognitive and professional interests, elements of research skills, the ability to build life plans and develop moral ideals, self-awareness.

This periodization is normative and expresses, first of all, the departmental point of view of the school, describing what a high school student should do. The inner world of the individual, her freedom, extracurricular activities, initiative (and not just the ability to “obey the norms”), friendship, love fall out of her as something insignificant, secondary, although the above is very significant at this age and affects the further development of the individual. But, along with this, the inner world of the individual, extracurricular activities, friendship, love fall out, in this concept, as something insignificant.

Despite the established ideas about high school students as people who are completely turned to the future, one can find a lot of evidence of their preoccupation with the present. Even self-determination, although directed with all its goals, expectations, hopes for the future, is nevertheless carried out as self-determination in the present - in the practice of living reality and about current events. From these positions, the importance of communication should also be assessed - an activity that occupies a huge place in the life of adolescents and older students and represents an independent value for them.

List of used literature

1. Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. Moscow, 1989

2. Elkonin B.D. Developmental Psychology: Textbook for Universities 2007, Academy of Information Center Series "Higher Professional Education"

3. Obukhova L.F., Doctor of Psychology. Child (age) psychology. Textbook. Moscow, Russian Pedagogical Agency. 1996

4. Elkonin B.D. Introduction to Developmental Psychology Moscow, 1995.

D. B. Elkonin substantiated his periodization by changing the leading types of activity and singled out stages different in content - epochs, phases, periods. Two types of phases of age-related development are singled out - the phases of mastering the motivational side of human activity and the phases of mastering the operational and technical side of activity.

It uses three criteria - the social situation of development, the leading activity and the central age-related neoplasm.

The social situation of development is a peculiar combination of what has been formed in the child's psyche and those relations that are established in the child with the social environment.

The concept of "leading activity" was introduced by Leontiev: an activity that at a given stage has the greatest influence on the development of the psyche.

Neoplasm - those qualitative features of the psyche that first appear in a given age period.

The hypothesis about the periodicity of zakl in the regular alternation of periods of predominant development of the affective-required, personal sphere and the operational-technical, mental sphere.

Periodization is built according to the following scheme: cycle, periods, phases of development. The holistic cycle includes two complementary periods: the period of development of the affective-required, personal sphere and the period of development of the operational-technical, mental sphere.

Restrictions:

In periodization. the period of prenatal development is not included, as other patterns.

There are no mature ages, since the assumption is about a fundamental change in the laws of development in adulthood.

era of early childhood.

Period Infancy (2-12 months)

The social situation "We" - the child is physically separated from the mother, but physiologically connected with her.

Leading activity Direct emotional communication and close adults. Walking, the emergence of motivated representations.

Crises 0-2 months. neonatal crisis (transition from prenatal to postnatal development, change in the type of life). 1 year - crisis of the first year of life (disintegration of Pra-We)

New formation of the crisis The emergence of individual mental life, the restructuring of the physiological mechanisms of existence.

Sphere of Development - Motivational-need.

Period Early age (1-3 years).

Social situation Disintegration of the "Great-We", the acquisition of relative independence, freedom of movement and autonomy of intentions.

Leading activity Subject-gun. Using an object as a weapon. Speech development is the central line of development.

Crises Crisis "I myself" (3 years).

Symptoms: negativism, stubbornness, obstinacy, self-will, depreciation of adults, the desire for despotism. The essence of the crisis: the restructuring of relations between a child and an adult, in favor of increasing the independence of the child.

Neoformation crisis The child calls himself, using the pronoun "I" - the formation of self-consciousness, pride in achievements. The birth of an autonomous personality with intentions and desires, a tendency to independent activity similar to that of an adult.

Sphere of development Cognitive-mental.

Age of childhood.

Period Preschool (3-7 years).

Social situation Disintegration of joint activities with an adult.

Leading activity Role-playing game. The development of the motivational-need sphere, the overcoming of egocentrism, the development of an ideal plan, the development of arbitrariness. New formation is visual-figurative thinking.

Crises Crisis 6-7 years. Symptoms: loss of spontaneity, mannerisms, bittersweet symptom.

The essence of the crisis: the formation of a world of inner experiences that mediate the child's attitude to the world

Neoformation of the crisis Entering into relations with society as a set of people carrying out mandatory, socially necessary and socially useful activities.

Sphere of development Motivational-need.

Period Junior school (7-11 years).

Social situation The child is a close adult” and “the child is a social adult”.

Leading activity Educational (involves mastering generalized methods of action in the system of scientific concepts). The central line is intellectualization.

Crises Crisis 12 years. Restructuring relationships with adults. The birth of a sense of maturity

Neoformation of the crisis The emergence of ideas about oneself as “not a child, a teenager begins to feel like an adult, strives to be an adult, there is no true adulthood, but there is a need for the recognition of adulthood by others.

Sphere of development Cognitive sphere, intellect.

Age of adolescence.

Period Younger adolescence (12-15 years).

Social situation Dominance of children's society over adults.

Leading activity Intimate and personal communication with peers. The norms of social behavior are mastered.

Crises Crisis 15 years. Formation of ego-identity, the birth of individual self-consciousness.

New formation of the crisis The discovery of "I", the emergence of reflection - on its basis of self-consciousness, awareness of one's individuality.

Sphere of development Motivation-need, assimilation of moral norms.

Period Senior adolescence (15-17 years).

Social situation A teenager is in a situation of a moratorium - he needs to determine himself.

Leading activity Educational and professional.

Crises Crisis 17 years. The end of the era of adolescence, the beginning of entry into adulthood.

Neoformation of the crisis Value orientations in the sphere of ideology and worldview, building life plans in a time perspective.

Sphere of development Cognitive activity. It becomes more specific, self-education appears.

The form, duration and severity of the course of age-related crises can vary markedly depending on the individual typological characteristics of a person, social and microsocial conditions, the characteristics of upbringing in the family, and the pedagogical system as a whole.

Each age crisis is both a change in a person's worldview and a change in his status in relation to both society and himself. Learning to perceive yourself, new, from a positive point of view - this is the main thing that will help to overcome the psychological difficulties of age-related crises.

Crisis of the newborn Its first crisis is associated with a sharp change in the living conditions of the newborn. A child from familiar conditions enters a new world. From the first days of life, the baby has a system of unconditioned reflexes: food, protective and indicative. There is an adaptation of the child to new conditions of life.

The crisis of three years is characterized by the fact that the personal changes that occur with the child lead to a change in his relationship with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, realizes his possibilities, feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions that they do, for example: “When I grow up, I will brush my own teeth.”

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, depreciation, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of the need for respect and recognition.

Personal development and the emergence of self-awareness in preschool age become the causes of the crisis of seven years. The main features of this crisis are:

1) loss of immediacy. At the moment the desire arises and the action is carried out, an experience arises, the meaning of which is what meaning this action will have for the child;

2) mannerisms. Secrets appear in the child, he begins to hide something from adults, build himself smart, strict, etc .;

3) a symptom of "bitter candy". When a child feels bad, he tries not to show it.

The appearance of these signs leads to difficulties in communicating with adults, the child closes, becomes uncontrollable.

At the heart of these problems are experiences, the emergence of the inner life of the child is associated with their appearance. The formation of an inner life, a life of experiences, is a very important moment, since now the orientation of behavior will be refracted through the child's personal experiences. The inner life is not directly superimposed on the outer, but influences it.

The crisis of seven years entails a transition to a new social situation that requires a new content of relationships. The child needs to enter into relationships with people who are new to him, obligatory, socially necessary and socially useful activities. The former social relations (kindergarten, etc.) have already exhausted themselves, so he tends to go to school as soon as possible and enter into new social relations. But, despite the desire to go to school, not all children are ready for learning. This was shown by observations of the first days of the child's stay within the walls of this institution.

The teenage crisis occurs at the age of 12-14 years. In terms of duration, it is longer than all other crisis periods. L.I. Bozhovich believes that this is due to the faster pace of physical and mental development of adolescents, leading to the formation of needs that cannot be met due to insufficient social maturity of schoolchildren.

The teenage crisis is characterized by the fact that at this age the relationship of adolescents with others is changing. They begin to make increased demands on themselves and on adults and protest against being treated as if they were small children.

At this stage, the behavior of children changes dramatically: many of them become rude, uncontrollable, do everything in defiance of their elders, do not obey them, ignore comments (adolescent negativism) or, conversely, may withdraw into themselves.

If adults are sympathetic to the needs of the child and, at the first negative manifestations, rebuild their relationship with children, then the transition period is not so violent and painful for both parties. Otherwise, the teenage crisis proceeds very violently. It is influenced by external and internal factors.

External factors include continued adult control, dependency and guardianship, which seem excessive to the adolescent. He seeks to free himself from them, considering himself old enough to make his own decisions and act as he sees fit. A teenager is in a rather difficult situation: on the one hand, he really has become more mature, but, on the other hand, childish traits have been preserved in his psychology and behavior - he does not take his duties seriously enough, cannot act responsibly and independently. All this leads to the fact that adults cannot perceive him as an equal to himself.

However, an adult needs to change his attitude towards a teenager, otherwise resistance may arise on his part, which over time will lead to misunderstanding between an adult and a teenager and interpersonal conflict, and then to a delay in personal development. A teenager may have a feeling of uselessness, apathy, alienation, and the opinion that adults cannot understand and help him or her may be established. As a result, at the moment when a teenager really needs the support and help of elders, he will be emotionally rejected from an adult, and the latter will lose the opportunity to influence the child and help him.

To avoid such problems, you should build a relationship with a teenager based on trust, respect, in a friendly way. The creation of such relationships contributes to the involvement of a teenager in some serious work.

Internal factors reflect the personal development of a teenager. Habits and character traits that prevent him from carrying out his plans change: internal prohibitions are violated, the habit of obeying adults is lost, etc. There is a desire for personal self-improvement, which occurs through the development of self-knowledge (reflection), self-expression, self-affirmation. A teenager is critical of his shortcomings, both physical and personal (character traits), worries about those character traits that prevent him from establishing friendly contacts and relationships with people. Negative statements about him can lead to affective outbursts and conflicts.

At this age, there is an increased growth of the body, which entails behavioral changes and emotional outbursts: the teenager begins to get very nervous, blame himself for failure, which leads to internal tension that is difficult for him to cope with.

Behavioral changes are manifested in the desire to “experience everything, go through everything”, and there is a tendency to take risks. A teenager is attracted to everything that was previously banned. Many of the "curiosity" try alcohol, drugs, start smoking. If this is done not out of curiosity, but because of courage, psychological addiction to drugs may occur, although sometimes curiosity leads to persistent addiction.

At this age, spiritual growth occurs and mental status changes. Reflection, which extends to the surrounding world and oneself, leads to internal contradictions, which are based on the loss of identity with oneself, the discrepancy between former ideas about oneself and the current image. These contradictions can lead to obsessive states: doubts, fears, depressing thoughts about yourself.

The manifestation of negativism can be expressed in some adolescents in senseless opposition to others, unmotivated contradiction (most often adults) and other protest reactions. Adults (teachers, parents, relatives) need to rebuild relationships with a teenager, try to understand his problems and make the transition period less painful.

Age crises of mature periods of life and old age are much less studied. It is known that such turning points occur much less frequently than in childhood, and, as a rule, proceed more covertly, without pronounced changes in behavior. The processes of restructuring the semantic structures of consciousness and reorientation to new life tasks that take place at this time, leading to a change in the nature of activity and relationships, have a profound impact on the further course of personality development. This is an age crisis at the time of youth - about flying. When a person is already formally and is considered an adult. Moreover, he considers himself an adult, and accordingly tries to prove it to himself, and to the rest of the world. Also, this is a time of real, adult responsibility: the army, the first job, the university, perhaps the first marriage. Parents stop standing behind, a truly independent life begins, saturated with numerous hopes for the future. The next age crisis occurs around the age of 30. The first frenzy of youth is already over, a person evaluates what has been done and already looks into the future much more soberly. He begins to want peace, stability. Many at this age begin to “make a career”, others, on the contrary, devote more time to the family in the hope of finding some kind of “meaning of life”, something that would seriously occupy the mind and heart. Next, the age crisis falls raid. A person sees old age ahead, and behind it the worst thing is death. The body loses strength and beauty, wrinkles, gray hair appear, diseases overcome. There comes a time for the first battle with old age, a time when one strikes into love adventures, then goes headlong into work, then begins to do extreme things like skydiving or climbing Everest. During this period, some seek salvation in religion, others in various philosophies, while others, on the contrary, become cynical and angrier. The next age crisis accounts for a raid. A person in these years, as a rule, retires and does not know at all what to do with himself. In addition, health is no longer the same, old friends are far away, and someone may be dead, the children have grown up and have been living their own lives for a long time, even if they are in the same house with their parents. A person suddenly realizes that life is coming to an end and he is no longer in the center of its cycle, that his age is ending. He feels lost, may become depressed, lose interest in life.

Age crises accompany a person throughout life. For some, they go smoothly, for others it’s just right not to hang yourself. Age crises are natural and necessary for development. A more realistic life position arising as a result of age crises helps a person to acquire a new relatively stable form of relationship with the outside world.

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/ №6 Crises of Vygotsky's age development

Crises of age development

Age crises are some time periods in human development, during which there are sharp mental changes. They do not last long, from several months to a year and are a normal phenomenon in the personal development of a person. The duration of these crises and their manifestations depend on individual characteristics and the conditions in which a person is in a given period of time. The conditions are understood as both the family and the social environment (at work, in the company, clubs of interest.). The opinions of psychologists about age-related crises differ. Some believe that the crisis is the result of improper upbringing, that development should take place smoothly and harmoniously. Others believe that the crisis is a normal process of transition to a more difficult age stage. Some psychologists believe that a person who has not survived the crisis will not develop further. Domestic psychologists distinguish between stable and crisis periods of development. They alternate with each other and are a natural process of child development. Obvious shifts in development are manifested, the child changes greatly in behavior (it can be extremely emotional), conflicts with adults (not only with loved ones). Losing interest in activities. This is observed not only at school, but also in circles. Some children have unconscious experiences, internal conflicts. Now let's consider crises according to age parameters: According to Vygotsky: - neonatal crisis Associated with changes in living conditions. A child from a familiar environment finds himself in completely different conditions. All nine months he was in the womb. First, it is the aquatic environment. It 'warm over there. He fed and breathed through the umbilical cord without any effort. At birth, everything changed dramatically. From the aquatic environment, the child enters the air. Breathe and eat on your own. There is an adaptation to new conditions. - crisis of one year During this period, the child has new needs. This is the age of manifestation of independence, and various emotional and affective manifestations are the result or, if you like, the child's response to a misunderstanding of adults. It is during this period that children's speech appears. She is rather peculiar, different from an adult, but at the same time she corresponds to the situation and is emotionally colored. - crisis of three years The crisis of three years precedes the crisis of seven years of age and is one of the most difficult life periods of a child. The child singles out his "I", moves away from adults and tries to build other "more adult" relationships with them. The well-known Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky singles out 7 characteristics of the crisis of the age of three. Negativism. Negative reaction of the child to the request or demand of an adult. This reaction is not directed against the very action that is required of the child. Manifestation of stubbornness. The child insists on something, not because he really wants it, but because he demands that his opinion be taken into account. The line of manifestation of independence is very clearly traced. The child wants to do everything himself. - the crisis of seven years The crisis of seven years can manifest itself in the interval of approximately 6 to 8 years. Since at this age almost all children go to school, this period is associated with the discovery of a new social position for themselves - the position of a schoolchild. At this age, the child's self-awareness changes, respectively, there is a reassessment of values. One of the manifestations of the crisis of seven years is antics, stiffness of behavior due to the distinction between inner and outer life. All these manifestations disappear when the child enters the next age stage. - crisis of adolescence (puberty) This crisis is associated with the puberty of the child. Activation of sex hormones and growth hormones is typical at this age stage. Rapid growth of the body, the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. Adolescents are guided in behavior by patterns of masculinity or femininity. Consequently, interest in one's appearance increases and a certain new vision of oneself is formed. This age is characterized by strong feelings about their imperfect appearance. One of the most important neoplasms is the feeling of adulthood. In adolescence, there is a strong desire - to be or at least seem to be an adult and independent. Adolescents do not share any information about their personal lives with their parents; quarrels and conflicts with adults often arise. The main circle of communication in this period is peers. Intimate-personal communication occupies a central place in the life of a teenager. Also, this age tends to unite in informal groups. According to Erickson, a person experiences eight psychosocial crises throughout his life, specific for each age, the favorable or unfavorable outcome of which determines the direction of further development of the personality. The first crisis a person experiences in the first year of life. It is related to whether the basic physiological needs of the child are met by the person caring for him or not. In the first case, the child develops a feeling of deep trust in the world around him, and in the second, on the contrary, distrust of him. The second crisis is connected with the first learning experience, especially with teaching the child to cleanliness. If the parents understand the child and help him control the natural functions, the child gains an experience of autonomy. On the contrary, too strict or too inconsistent external control leads to the development of shame or doubt in the child, mainly associated with the fear of losing control over his own body. The third crisis corresponds to the "second childhood". At this age, the child's self-assertion takes place. The plans that he constantly makes and which he is allowed to carry out, contribute to the development of his sense of initiative. On the contrary, the experience of repeated failures and irresponsibility can lead him to resignation and guilt. The fourth crisis occurs at school age. At school, the child learns to work, preparing for future tasks. Depending on the atmosphere prevailing in the school and the methods of education adopted, the child develops a taste for work or, on the contrary, a feeling of inferiority, both in terms of the use of means and opportunities, and in terms of their own status among comrades. The fifth crisis is experienced by adolescents of both sexes in search of identification (assimilation of patterns of behavior of other people that are significant for a teenager). This process involves the integration of the adolescent's past experiences, his potentialities and the choices he has to make. The adolescent's inability to identify, or the difficulties associated with it, can lead to "diffusion" or confusion about the roles that the adolescent plays or will play in the emotional, social and professional spheres. The sixth crisis is peculiar to young adults. It is associated with the search for intimacy with a loved one, with whom he will have to go through the cycle of "work - having children - rest" in order to ensure proper development for his children. The absence of such experience leads to the isolation of a person and his closure on himself. The seventh crisis occurs at about 40 years of age. It is characterized by the development of a sense of the preservation of the family (generativity), which is expressed mainly in "interest in the next generation and its upbringing." This period of life is characterized by high productivity and creativity in various fields. If, on the contrary, the evolution of married life goes in a different way, it can freeze in a state of pseudo-intimacy (stagnation), which dooms the spouses to exist only for themselves, with the risk of impoverishment of interpersonal relationships. The eighth crisis is experienced during aging. It marks the end of the life path, and the resolution depends on how this path was traveled. A person's achievement of wholeness is based on summing up the results of his past life and realizing it as a single whole, in which nothing can be changed. If a person cannot bring his past actions together, he ends his life in fear of death and in despair at the impossibility of starting life anew.

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2. Crises of age development

Age crises are special, relatively short in time (up to a year) periods of ontogeny, characterized by sharp mental changes. They refer to the normative processes necessary for the normal progressive course of personal development (Erickson).

The form and duration of these periods, as well as the severity of the flow, depend on individual characteristics, social and microsocial conditions. In developmental psychology, there is no consensus about crises, their place and role in mental development. Some psychologists believe that development should be harmonious, crisis-free. Crises are an abnormal, “painful” phenomenon, the result of improper upbringing. Another part of psychologists argues that the presence of crises in development is natural. Moreover, according to some ideas in developmental psychology, a child who has not truly experienced a crisis will not fully develop further. Bozhovich, Polivanova, Gail Sheehy addressed this topic.

L.S. Vygotsky considers the dynamics of transitions from one age to another. At different stages, changes in the child's psyche can occur slowly and gradually, or they can happen quickly and abruptly. Stable and crisis stages of development are distinguished, their alternation is the law of child development. A stable period is characterized by a smooth course of the development process, without sharp shifts and changes in the Personality of the r-ka. Long in duration. Insignificant, minimal changes accumulate and at the end of the period give a qualitative leap in development: age-related neoplasms appear, stable, fixed in the structure of the Personality.

Crises do not last long, a few months, under unfavorable circumstances stretching up to a year or even two years. These are brief but turbulent stages. Significant shifts in development, the child changes dramatically in many of its features. Development can take on a catastrophic character at this time. The crisis begins and ends imperceptibly, its boundaries are blurred, indistinct. The aggravation occurs in the middle of the period. For the people around the child, it is associated with a change in behavior, the appearance of "difficulty in education". The child is out of control of adults. Affective outbursts, whims, conflicts with loved ones. Schoolchildren's working capacity decreases, interest in classes weakens, academic performance decreases, sometimes painful experiences and internal conflicts arise.

In a crisis, development acquires a negative character: what was formed at the previous stage disintegrates, disappears. But something new is also being created. Neoplasms turn out to be unstable and in the next stable period they transform, are absorbed by other neoplasms, dissolve in them, and thus die off.

D.B. Elkonin developed the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky on child development. “A child approaches each point in his development with a certain discrepancy between what he has learned from the system of relations man-man and what he has learned from the system of relations man-object. It is precisely the moments when this discrepancy takes on the greatest magnitude that are called crises, after which the development of the side that lagged behind in the previous period takes place. But each of the parties is preparing the development of the other.

Neonatal crisis. Associated with a sharp change in living conditions. A child from comfortable habitual conditions of life gets into difficult ones (new nutrition, breathing). Adaptation of the child to new conditions of life.

Crisis 1 year. It is associated with an increase in the child's capabilities and the emergence of new needs. A surge of independence, the emergence of affective reactions. Affective outbursts as a reaction to misunderstanding on the part of adults. The main acquisition of the transitional period is a kind of children's speech, called L.S. Vygotsky autonomous. It is significantly different from adult speech and in sound form. Words become ambiguous and situational.

Crisis 3 years. The boundary between early and preschool years is one of the most difficult moments in a child's life. This is destruction, a revision of the old system of social relations, a crisis in the allocation of one's "I", according to D.B. Elkonin. The child, separating from adults, tries to establish new, deeper relationships with them. The appearance of the phenomenon “I myself”, according to Vygotsky, is a new formation “the external I myself”. "The child is trying to establish new forms of relationship with others - a crisis of social relations."

L.S. Vygotsky describes 7 characteristics of a 3-year crisis. Negativism is a negative reaction not to the action itself, which he refuses to perform, but to the demand or request of an adult. The main motive for action is to do the opposite.

The motivation of the child's behavior changes. At 3 years old, for the first time, he becomes able to act contrary to his immediate desire. The behavior of the child is determined not by this desire, but by relationships with another, adult person. The motive for behavior is already outside the situation given to the child. Stubbornness. This is the reaction of a child who insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he himself told adults about it and demands that his opinion be taken into account. Obstinacy. It is directed not against a specific adult, but against the entire system of relations that developed in early childhood, against the norms of upbringing accepted in the family.

The tendency towards independence is clearly manifested: the child wants to do everything and decide for himself. In principle, this is a positive phenomenon, but during a crisis, a hypertrophied tendency towards independence leads to self-will, it is often inadequate to the child's capabilities and causes additional conflicts with adults.

For some children, conflicts with their parents become regular, they seem to be constantly at war with adults. In these cases, one speaks of a protest-revolt. In a family with an only child, despotism may appear. If there are several children in the family, instead of despotism, jealousy usually arises: the same tendency to power here acts as a source of jealous, intolerant attitude towards other children, who have almost no rights in the family, from the point of view of the young despot.

Depreciation. A 3-year-old child may begin to swear (old rules of behavior are depreciated), discard or even break a favorite toy offered at the wrong time (old attachments to things are depreciated), etc. The child's attitude to other people and to himself changes. He is psychologically separated from close adults.

The crisis of 3 years is associated with the awareness of oneself as an active subject in the world of objects, the child for the first time can act contrary to his desires.

Crisis 7 years. It may start at age 7, or it may shift to 6 or 8 years. The discovery of the meaning of a new social position - the position of a schoolchild associated with the implementation of highly valued by adults educational work. The formation of an appropriate internal position radically changes his self-awareness. According to L.I. Bozovic is the period of the birth of social. "I" of the child. A change in self-consciousness leads to a reassessment of values. There are profound changes in terms of experiences - stable affective complexes. It appears that L.S. Vygotsky calls the generalization of experiences. A chain of failures or successes (in studies, in wide communication), each time experienced by the child in approximately the same way, leads to the formation of a stable affective complex - a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, hurt pride or a sense of self-worth, competence, exclusivity. Thanks to the generalization of experiences, the logic of feelings appears. Experiences acquire a new meaning, connections are established between them, the struggle of experiences becomes possible.

This gives rise to the inner life of the child. The beginning of the differentiation of the external and internal life of the child is associated with a change in the structure of his behavior. A semantic orienting basis of an act appears - a link between the desire to do something and the unfolding actions. This is an intellectual moment that makes it possible to more or less adequately assess the future act in terms of its results and more distant consequences. Semantic orientation in one's own actions becomes an important aspect of inner life. At the same time, it excludes the impulsiveness and immediacy of the child's behavior. Thanks to this mechanism, the childish spontaneity is lost; the child thinks before acting, begins to hide his feelings and hesitations, tries not to show others that he is ill.

A purely crisis manifestation of the differentiation of the external and internal life of children usually becomes antics, mannerisms, artificial stiffness of behavior. These external features, as well as the tendency to whims, affective reactions, conflicts, begin to disappear when the child emerges from the crisis and enters a new age.

Neoplasm - arbitrariness and awareness of mental processes and their intellectualization.

Puberty crisis (from 11 to 15 years) is associated with the restructuring of the child's body - puberty. The activation and complex interaction of growth hormones and sex hormones cause intense physical and physiological development. Secondary sexual characteristics appear. Adolescence is sometimes referred to as a protracted crisis. In connection with the rapid development, difficulties arise in the functioning of the heart, lungs, blood supply to the brain. In adolescence, the emotional background becomes uneven, unstable.

Emotional instability enhances the sexual arousal that accompanies puberty.

Gender identity reaches a new, higher level. Orientation to models of masculinity and femininity in behavior and manifestation of personal properties is clearly manifested.

Due to the rapid growth and restructuring of the body in adolescence, interest in one's appearance sharply increases. A new image of the physical "I" is being formed. Because of its hypertrophied significance, the child is acutely experiencing all the flaws in appearance, real and imaginary.

The image of the physical "I" and self-consciousness in general is influenced by the pace of puberty. Children with late maturation are in the least advantageous position; acceleration creates more favorable opportunities for personal development.

A sense of adulthood appears - a feeling of being an adult, the central neoplasm of younger adolescence. There is a passionate desire, if not to be, then at least to appear and be considered an adult. Defending his new rights, a teenager protects many areas of his life from the control of his parents and often comes into conflict with them. In addition to the desire for emancipation, a teenager has a strong need for communication with peers. Intimate-personal communication becomes the leading activity during this period. Adolescent friendships and association in informal groups appear. There are also bright, but usually successive hobbies.

Crisis 17 years (from 15 to 17 years). It arises exactly at the turn of the usual school and new adult life. It can move up to 15 years. At this time, the child is on the threshold of real adult life.

The majority of 17-year-old schoolchildren are oriented towards continuing their education, a few are looking for work. The value of education is a great blessing, but at the same time, achieving the goal is difficult, and at the end of the 11th grade, emotional stress can increase dramatically.

For those who have been going through a crisis for 17 years, various fears are characteristic. Responsibility to yourself and your family for the choice, real achievements at this time is already a big burden. To this is added the fear of a new life, of the possibility of error, of failure when entering a university, and for young men, of the army. High anxiety and, against this background, pronounced fear can lead to neurotic reactions, such as fever before graduation or entrance exams, headaches, etc. An exacerbation of gastritis, neurodermatitis, or another chronic disease may begin.

A sharp change in lifestyle, inclusion in new activities, communication with new people cause significant tension. A new life situation requires adaptation to it. Two factors mainly help to adapt: ​​family support and self-confidence, a sense of competence.

Aspiration to the future. The period of stabilization of the Personality. At this time, a system of stable views on the world and one's place in it is formed - a worldview. Known associated with this youthful maximalism in assessments, passion in defending their point of view. Self-determination, professional and personal, becomes the central new formation of the period.

Crisis 30 years. Around the age of 30, sometimes a little later, most people experience a crisis. It is expressed in a change in ideas about one's life, sometimes in a complete loss of interest in what used to be the main thing in it, in some cases even in the destruction of the former way of life.

The crisis of 30 years arises due to the unrealized life plan. If at the same time there is a “reassessment of values” and a “revision of one's own Personality”, then we are talking about the fact that the life plan turned out to be wrong in general. If the life path is chosen correctly, then attachment “to a certain Activity, a certain way of life, certain values ​​and orientations” does not limit, but, on the contrary, develops his Personality.

The crisis of 30 years is often called the crisis of the meaning of life. It is with this period that the search for the meaning of existence is usually associated. This quest, like the whole crisis, marks the transition from youth to maturity.

The problem of meaning in all its variants, from private to global - the meaning of life - arises when the goal does not correspond to the motive, when its achievement does not lead to the achievement of the object of need, i.e. when the goal was set incorrectly. If we are talking about the meaning of life, then the general life goal turned out to be erroneous, i.e. life intention.

Some people in adulthood have another, “unscheduled” crisis, which does not coincide with the border of two stable periods of life, but arises within this period. This is the so-called crisis of 40 years. It's like a repetition of the crisis of 30 years. It occurs when the crisis of 30 years has not led to a proper solution of existential problems.

A person is acutely experiencing dissatisfaction with his life, the discrepancy between life plans and their implementation. A.V. Tolstykh notes that a change in attitude on the part of colleagues at work is added to this: the time when one could be considered “promising”, “promising” is passing, and a person feels the need to “pay bills”.

In addition to the problems associated with professional activity, the crisis of 40 years is often caused by the aggravation of family relations. The loss of some close people, the loss of a very important common side of the life of spouses - direct participation in the lives of children, everyday care for them - contributes to the final understanding of the nature of marital relations. And if, apart from the children of the spouses, nothing significant connects both of them, the family may break up.

In the event of a crisis of 40 years, a person has to once again rebuild his life plan, develop a largely new “I-concept”. Serious changes in life can be associated with this crisis, up to a change in profession and the creation of a new family.

Retirement Crisis. First of all, the violation of the habitual regime and way of life has a negative effect, often combined with a sharp sense of contradiction between the remaining ability to work, the opportunity to be useful and their lack of demand. A person turns out to be, as it were, “thrown to the sidelines” of the current life without his active participation in the common life. The decline in one's social status, the loss of the life rhythm that has been preserved for decades, sometimes leads to a sharp deterioration in the general physical and mental state, and in some cases even to relatively quick death.

The crisis of retirement is often aggravated by the fact that around this time the second generation grows up and begins to live an independent life - grandchildren, which is especially painful for women who have devoted themselves mainly to the family.

Retirement, which often coincides with the acceleration of biological aging, is often associated with a worsening financial situation, sometimes a more secluded lifestyle. In addition, the crisis may be complicated by the death of a spouse, the loss of some close friends.