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The political development of the Novgorod land in the second shvin XIII-XIV centuries is characterized by the strengthening of republican forms of government. When, during the period of the great reign of Alexander Nevsky, Novgorod began to recognize the suzerainty of the Grand Duke of Vladimir over itself (the princes of other branches, except for the Suzdal Yurievichs, did not appear in Novgorod in the era after the Batu invasion), the princes in Novgorod still had real executive power: the prince's competence included approval of judicial acts, land and property transactions, documents regulating trade conflicts. But at the end of the 13th century, these issues were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the prince in favor of the republican legal proceedings171. Since that time, the suzerainty of the Grand Dukes over Novgorod was largely nominal.

In the 14th century, relations with Lithuania began to play an important role in the politics of Novgorod. I.B. Grekov believed that the rulers of Veliky Novgorod in this century were constantly maneuvering between the great Vladimir principality and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, inviting either the Lithuanian princes or the “Moscow-Vladimir princes”172. However, it is wrong to equate Novgorod's relations with North-Eastern Rus' and Lithuania. The Lithuanian princes who came to Novgorod in the 14th century did not occupy the Novgorod princely table: they were given certain territories by the Novgorod boyar government for “feeding” so that they would defend these lands from the Order and Sweden173. When in 1333 Prince Narimant Gediminovich arrived in Novgorod, “giving him Ladoga, and Or-hovyi, and Kor-lskyi and Norilsk lands, and half of Koporya (all these are bordering lands with Swedish and order possessions - A.G.) and in dkdna, and his dtemta”174. Soon Narimant left Novgorod175. In 1379, his son Yuri176 arrived there and received, apparently, the same volosts. In 1383, Prince Patricius Narimantovich appeared in Novgorod, “and gave him food: Or "khov city, Kor'kl city, and half of the city of Koporya and Luskoye village" 177, i.e., the lands of the same region; next year In 1386, the Novgorod government gave Patricia Rus and Ladoga instead of Orekhovoi and Korelskoe.178 In 1386, Patricius took part in the defense of Novgorod from the troops of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich.179 In 1389-1392, Prince Semyon (Lugven) Olgerdovich stayed in Novgorod.180 When he appears here for the second time in 1407, “Give him the suburbs of Novgorod, which were before him”181, i.e., Semyon was not in Novgorod itself, but in the “suburbs” - cities under Novgorod rule.

Relations with the princes of North-Eastern Rus' were different. The Grand Duke of Vladimir, as suzerain of the Novgorod Republic, had the right to keep his deputies in its very capital. Grand-princely “governors” in Novgorod are mentioned in the Novgorod annals of the 14th century. under 1304, 1312, 1314, 1315, 1316 (deputies of Mikhail of Tver), 1327, 1333, 1339 (deputies of Ivan Kalita), 1342 (deputy of Semyon Ivanovich Boris), 1348

(governors of Semyon Ivanovich), 1360 (governors of Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal, who at that time was the Grand Duke of Vladimir), 1367 (governor of Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow), 1375 (governor of Dmitry Ivanovich Ivan IIIrokshinich), 1386 (governors of Dmitry Ivanovich sent to Novgorod after the conclusion of peace)182. The governors of the Grand Duke also appear in the treaty letters of Novgorod with the Germans in 1338, 1342, 1370/71, 1371 and 1372. (moreover, the governor is placed in the texts of the treaties before the posadnik and the thousandth - the highest officials of the Novgorod Republic; earlier, only the archbishop was mentioned as the "viceroy of the Grand Duke")183.

Undoubtedly, the ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania considered the Novgorod land as an object of their possible expansion, and the Novgorod elite could see Lithuania as a counterbalance to the Grand Dukes of Vladimir during conflicts with them (it was not for nothing that the appearance of serving Lithuanian princes in Novgorod coincided with conflicts with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir) 184. But these conflicts did not call into question the close political connection of Novgorod with North-Eastern Russia. The Novgorod government could clash with the Grand Duke on specific political issues185, it could even prefer some contenders to the Grand Duke's table over others,18 but the suzerainty of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir over Novgorod was called into question. did not set. The list of Novgorod princes in the 14th century names (and therefore considers Novgorod princes) only the princes who occupied (successively) the grand ducal throne of Vladimir: Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver, Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, Dmitry Mikhailovich of Tver, Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver, Ivan Danilovich Kalita, Semyon Ivanovich, Ivan Ivanovich, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy, Vasily Dmitrievich187.

In the XIV century, only once, around 1398, in the conditions of a particularly acute conflict with Moscow over the Dvina land188, the Novgorod government apparently decided to recognize the suzerainty over Novgorod of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, but quickly abandoned such a step, as can be seen from the letter sent by Vitovt to Novgorod in 1399.

acted "for me, that it was for you to take care of me, and I was for you to be a great prince, and I had to harrow you, and you did not succumb to me; and Novgorodians! Prince Vitovt from himself a letter of conspicuous o-ioslapia",! And , t.s. did not acknowledge his claims.

The different attitude of Novgorod towards the great principalities of Vladimir and Lithuania can also be seen in the titles of their rulers used in the Novgorodian chronicle. Princes of Vladimir XIV restored again: from the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. there is direct news about the receipt by the Pskov princes-deputies from the Grand Duke Vasily Dmitrievich of Moscow199.

Become a Kyiv prince. Before the beginning of the strife, Novgorod, according to custom, was owned by the prince who ruled in Kyiv. He sent his governor to Novgorod. "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" was called by the Novgorodians, distinguished by pride and independence, their principality-state, spread over vast expanses and owning untold wealth.

The city of Novgorod, the center of the principality, is located on the Volkhov River at its source at Lake Ilmen. The river divided the city into two parts. On the right bank there was the Trading Side, where the main market - bargaining - was located. On the left, on the Sofia side, there is the Church of St. Sophia and the detinets (Novgorod Kremlin). The trading side was divided into two parts (ends), Sofia - into three. The five ends of the city were independent districts with their own self-government. The vast Novgorod land from Lake Ladoga and Onega to the upper reaches of the Volga was divided into five regions (pyatins).

In addition, vast lands outside the principality itself, the so-called Novgorod lands - along the Northern Dvina, on the White Sea, along the Pechora and Kama rivers to Perm and the Ural Mountains were subordinate to Novgorod. Detachments of Novgorodians, the so-called ushkuiniki (from the name of the boat - ushkuy), crossed over the Stone, over the Ural Mountains. The structure of the Novgorod principality included 14 large cities at that time. The suburbs of Novgorod were Pskov (later separated into an independent principality), Izborsk, Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Novy Torg (Torzhok).

Novgorod was surrounded by strong and aggressive neighbors: in the east - the Rostov-Suzdal principality, in the west - Lithuania and the possessions of German knightly orders in the Baltic. On the territory of the vast Novgorod principality there were innumerable riches: furs, honey, wax, timber, metal. The geographical position turned Novgorod into the largest trading center of Ancient Rus'. Trade relations united Novgorod with the Hansa (a union of the Baltic trading cities - Riga, Lübeck, Hamburg) with other German cities. In Novgorod, the Hanseatic and Gotha (German) trading yards were located. Novgorod merchants could be found in all cities of Ancient Rus'. But the Novgorod land was infertile. Novgorodians imported bread from the Rostov-Suzdal Principality.

The Novgorod principality is often referred to in the historical literature as a "republic". N.I. Kostomarov defined the political system of Novgorod and Pskov as "people's rule".

Several objective reasons contributed to the isolation of Novgorod and the formation of its state structure:

- First. The isolation of the Novgorod land, its remoteness from other Russian principalities. Even the Tatar-Mongols could not enter the city, because in the spring the roads to the city were impassable.

- Second. The vast Novgorod region went to the north and northeast, where small peoples lived and from where Novgorod drew its enormous wealth. Trade relations with the West turned it into a kind of "window" to Europe for the whole of Rus'.

- Third. Thanks to their enormous wealth, the Novgorod boyars and merchants were independent and had the opportunity to pursue their own policies.

- Fourth. The collapse of the Kievan state, princely strife and confusion facilitated the isolation of Novgorod and the establishment of its political system.

The turning point in the establishment of the Novgorod freemen was the events of 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod and put him in prison with his entire family. Moreover, two months later the prince was released, but it was from then, according to the chronicler, that the invitation of the princes became possible to exile. In 1140, the Novgorodians expelled Svyatoslav, brother of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Vsevolod Olgovich. In a word, if the prince did not like or violated the contract, he was "showed the way." It happened that the princes left on their own when they were convinced that they could not cope with the Novgorodians.

And yet the princely power in Novgorod was preserved. Having expelled one prince, the population called for another. In the annals, the terms “call”, “recognize”, “plant” the prince appear. Why did the Novgorodians need a prince, what were his powers? The prince and his team were needed as a fighting force. Novgorod was always threatened by enemies, and it was necessary to fight them off. It is known that even Prince Alexander Nevsky, who won major victories over the Swedes and German knights and saved the independence of Novgorod, was also expelled. The prince ruled the court. The constant strife between the inhabitants required authoritative intervention and an objective trial, so that "he loved the good and executed the evil."

Novgorodians entered into a “row” (agreement) with the prince with the kissing of the cross, in which mutual obligations were stipulated. So, the prince and his retinue did not have the right to acquire land and servants in Novgorod possessions, to independently trade with foreign merchants. The prince was supposed to live not in the city, but in the place allotted to him - Gorodische. There were other restrictions on princely power.

The head of the Novgorod administration was posadnik. At first he was appointed by the prince, and in the middle of the XII century. this position is elective. The place of the posadnik was usually occupied by the richest and noblest boyars. The elected posadnik was supposed to protect the interests of Novgorodians. The posadnik was in charge of the local administration. Another elective office was thousand - leader of the Novgorod militia (thousands). Commanders of hundreds and tens obeyed him (cellular And tenths). The militia participated in campaigns together with the prince's retinue.

From the second half of the XII century. began to get the head of the church - Bishop(later Archbishop). The Metropolitan of Kyiv only approved the elected candidate. The ruler of Novgorod had broad powers. He kept the city treasury, samples of measures and weights in the St. Sophia Cathedral, followed the order of weighing and measuring goods. The vast state land holdings of Novgorod were also subordinate to him. The city archive was also kept in the St. Sophia Cathedral, under the direction of the bishop, a chronicle was compiled. Great was the role of the bishop in foreign policy and foreign trade. Agreements with the union of the Baltic trading cities (Hanse), signed by the Novgorod lord Dolmat (third quarter of the 13th century), have been preserved. In case of violation of agreements, foreign merchants complained to the lord.

The main governing body in Novgorod was veche - a meeting of citizens who have their own homes, heads of families. The veche met at the so-called Yaroslav's Yard, near the market square. Here stood a tower with a veche bell, a symbol of Novgorod liberty. At the ringing of the bell, people rushed to the veche square. Discussions were stormy, and decisions were made without a vote, with the general consent of the streets and ends. Sharp disagreements often arose, which ended in a fight on a large bridge across the Volkhov. In such cases, the prince could act as an intermediary. Archaeological excavations have shown that the veche area was not very large and could accommodate no more than 300-400 people.

Consequently, only the most influential and noble citizens participated in the meetings. In 1471, the Novgorod Veche adopted and approved the Sudebnik (deed of judgment). The veche resolved issues of war and peace, called on the prince and concluded an agreement with him, sorted out disputes with the prince, elected the posadnik, thousandth, lord. Veche was the highest court for the most important crimes requiring the most severe punishment (the death penalty and confiscation of property). Veche was in charge of foreign policy and all issues of defense (gathering troops, building fortresses, etc.). The ends and streets of the city had their own local self-government, their own councils met, which elected the "Konchan" and "street" (uniting the inhabitants of the streets) elders.

Played an important role in the administration of Novgorod council of lords It consisted of working and former posadniks and thousand, "Konchan" and "Ulichan" elders. The council of gentlemen preliminarily discussed all the questions that were brought up at the meeting. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, it was "a hidden, but very active spring of the Novgorod administration."

Community-veche rule in Novgorod originated in ancient times. Starting from the 12th century, the veche became free from princely power and received the right to elect a posadnik, a thousandth, and even a bishop. Thus, it was the veche that appointed the entire administrative elite of the city. In the 13th century, the veche organization flourished. The territory of the principality expanded, its economic power grew, and in parallel the development of political liberties went on.

Novgorod, as a rule, was owned by the prince who held the throne of Kiev. This made it possible for the eldest among the Rurik princes to control the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and, in fact, rule in Rus'.

In 1136, the boyars, which had significant economic power, took advantage of the Novgorod uprising and managed to take power from the prince. Novgorod turned into a boyar republic.

Novgorod princes after 1136 became officials. Their rights and obligations were stipulated by a special agreement with the veche.

The first official in the Novgorod administration was a posadnik. As a rule, the Grand Duke of Kyiv "planted" his eldest son as governor in Novgorod. The posadnik was the head of the government. He was in charge of the administration and the judiciary. The posadnik also commanded the army, headed the veche meeting and the boyar council, and presided over external negotiations.

According to the established tradition, the boyars of the four most important clans of Novgorod were chosen as posadniks.

The prince, invited by the veche, commanded the army in military campaigns. The princely squad was engaged in maintaining order in the city. The prince was a symbol of the unity of Novgorod with the rest of Russia.

The power of the prince was limited. “Without a posadnik, you, prince, do not judge courts, do not keep volosts, do not give letters.” The residence of the prince was located outside the Kremlin on Yaroslav's court - the Trade side. Later it was moved a few kilometers from the Kremlin to Gorodishche.

The prince, under an agreement with the city, did not have the right to buy land in Novgorod, give land in Novgorod volosts to his entourage, rule Novgorod volosts, judge outside the city, issue laws, declare the outbreak of war and conclude peace agreements. He was also not supposed to conclude agreements with foreigners without the participation of Novgorodians, to judge serfs, to accept pawns from among merchants and smerds, to hunt and fish beyond the boundaries of the lands established for him. In case of violation of the terms of the treaties, the prince could be expelled

The veche system of Novgorod and Pskov, in contrast to Kyiv, had a stronger foundation, since it included public unions, which had their own veche and elected administrative bodies. The lowest administrative-territorial unit in Novgorod, which had the right to self-government, was the street. The veche, which elected two or more "street" elders, dealt with the economic issues of the street. The elders represented the interests of the street before the prince and other officials. They were also involved in the control of land issues, participated in litigation. Each street had a veche hut and its own seal.

The streets formed five city ends; in each there was a veche, a seal, its own treasury, an elder was elected, the End was in possession of the land. The ends had administrative, judicial, military, as well as diplomatic functions. The elders of the ends gathered militias, from which the Novgorod army was created. They were participants in the negotiations and in court, were responsible for the distribution of duties among the residents and dealt with the resolution of disputes. A city-wide veche was considered legitimate only if representatives of all five regions participated in it.

The population of the city was divided not only into streets and ends, but also into hundreds. The division into hundreds (with the exception of the “Princes of a Hundred”) was not territorial. Hundreds are fiscal units, which from the end of the 12th century included only the trade and craft population. There were two hundred at each end, and the townspeople who were part of them elected the sot elders, paid taxes and performed natural duties. Of the ten hundred, as a military formation, a thousand Novgorod was made up. Hundreds, both militarily and judicially, were subordinate to the thousand. Tysyatsky was at the head of the merchant court, which included ten sotsky elders.

The supreme power in Novgorod belonged to the city-wide veche assembly of free citizens. Meetings were considered eligible if, in addition to officials, representatives of the entire population took part in them - “both boyars, and living people, and merchants, and black people, and the whole Mr. Sovereign Novgorod, all five ends ...”. Veche discussed the main problems of domestic and foreign policy: carried out the approval of charters and laws. It argued to whom to issue letters of commendation, resolved the issues of inviting and expelling the prince, choosing the posadnik, the thousandth and the bishop (since 1165 - the archbishop).

Veche gathered at the ringing of the bell on the Torgovaya Square. Vladyka in the veche did not take part in the veche, but sent his envoy and blessed all participants in the veche. The posadnik or other officials from the platform (“degrees”) announced the agenda of the meeting. The votes were not counted. The decision was made according to the strength of the scream of the participants in the meeting. If disagreements arose, then those dissatisfied with the decision convened their veche on the Sofia side. Opponents converged on the bridge over the Volkhov, it happened that only the intervention of the clergy could prevent a bloody fight. The decisions taken by the veche were formalized by the veche clerk in the veche hut.

The issues that were supposed to be decided by the veche were worked out by the “council of gentlemen”. The council met in the chambers of the archbishop under his presidency. This council, which was in fact the government, consisted of the princely governor, the posadnik, the thousand, the elders of the ends, the sots, as well as the former posadniks and the thousand. On the letter to the Solovetsky Monastery, which gave the right to own the Solovetsky Islands (mid-15th century.), There are eight seals: a bishop, a posadnik, a thousand and five seals of the city ends.

The role of the archbishop was special in the administration of Novgorod. All decisions of the veche were made on behalf of the lord and all of Novgorod. The archbishop presided over the council of lords, stood at the head of the embassy, ​​judged in matters of faith and exercised control over trade.

The all-city veche ruled over a vast territory that was part of the Novgorod state. Volosts were formed around small towns or suburbs. Suburban volosts were divided into graveyards, and those into rural communities. Each churchyard could have two officials - village and sotsky elders.

The suburbs and volosts paid taxes to Novgorod. Residents of Novgorod, according to researchers, were most likely from taxes. The population of the suburbs showed dissatisfaction with dependence on Novgorod and sought to free themselves from it.

The Moscow princes took advantage of the mood of discontent. After 1479, land was confiscated and repressions against the boyars were carried out. This destroyed the basis of the independence and economic power of Volny Novgorod. However, the most important reason for the fall of Novgorod, according to researchers, was the confrontation between the boyars, who concentrated power over the city in their hands, and the lower strata of the population. Novgorod "people's rule" actually became the boyar oligarchy.

Many historians call the veche system of Novgorod a "feudal republic", although this concept was not used until the beginning of the 20th century. Novgorodians themselves called their state "Veliky Novgorod" or "Lord Veliky Novgorod". This brings Novgorod closer to the concept of "city-state". According to I.I. Dityatin, in the specific-veche period, the role of Russian cities was very important in political life.

Novgorod developed under more favorable conditions and for a longer period of time than other cities of the specific period. Therefore, it was here that the features of the political life, which had only been outlined in Kyiv, were fully manifested. At first, the dualism of the power of the veche and the prince in these cities leaned towards the veche, which had a longer history as a form of power. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, the princes of Kievan Rus, "supported the existing everyday order in it, determined the details of the zemstvo system, but could not say that they created the very foundations of this system, were the creators of the society they ruled."

It is important to note that the democratic structure of the Novgorod state and its model in terms of democratic structure were later used by the Cossack communities of Russia, building their state formations according to the type, image and likeness of the Novgorod Republic. These aspects found their expression in the works of a number of Russian and foreign scientists, in particular I.Yu. Erokhin.

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Despite the use of three fields, agriculture in this region, due to natural conditions, could not provide the growing population of the North-West with bread. The growing demand for bread stimulated an intensive increase in its import and, accordingly, the export of its own export goods. These factors contributed to the fact that in the feudal estates of North-Western Rus', unlike other lands, cash rent had already become widespread.

The Pskov judgment (judicial) charter does not mention the smerds of the period of Kievan Rus, but the peasants who rented land subject to the performance of feudal duties, including:

Izorniki - tenants of arable land, who had to alienate a certain part of the crop (1/2-1/4) in favor of the feudal lord and could not leave without paying their debt to the feudal lord (‹pokruta› or ‹okruta›);

Kochetniks - tenants of fishing places (paid up to 1/4 of the catch);

Gardeners - tenants of gardens (paid 1/4 of the harvest to the townspeople - the owner of the land);

Outcasts - people from the community, ruined farmers, bankrupt merchants.

The leading role in the economy of Novgorod and Pskov was played by industries: fishing and especially iron-working (extraction, production and processing of iron from swamp ores). Iron was cooked in blast furnaces, the productivity of which was 70-100 kg per day, furs with a water wheel were already used.

The development of the technical base of production began to go beyond the framework of the feudal craft and stimulated the formation of a scattered capitalist manufactory. Similar processes of the formation of scattered manufactory in this period were going on in the most economically developed region of Europe - the cities of Northern Italy (for example, in the woolen industry of medieval Florence).

The fishing industry gradually diversified, it was supplemented by the extraction and processing of skins and bones of marine animals from the northern regions of the Novgorod land.

Thanks to the growth of fishing and fish harvesting, salt production was actively developing. Salt pans were held by both boyars and merchants. The main centers of salt production were Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, Galich.

Salt generally played a very important role in the medieval economy, including as money. As Braudel points out, any known salt deposits in Europe were actively exploited.

Export from the region consisted of both traditional goods (furs, hemp, flax, wax, lard) and new ones (fish oil, blubber, handicrafts). Cloth, silk, linen, wine, spices, salt, bread, and metals were imported.

In the XIV century. Novgorod becomes the largest trade and craft center of all Rus' and the main point of Russian trade with the West. The Novgorod market was of pan-European economic importance as an intermediary in an important section of the international trade between Hansa - Scandinavia - Rus'.

The state structure of Novgorod preserved the ancient political structure of the feudal republic of boyars, landowners and merchants. But the bulk of the population were "black people" (artisans).

The keeper of the treasury of the republic and the main manager of state lands was the bishop of Novgorod (later the archbishop), who also led foreign trade.

Historically, the most prominent Novgorodian estate were wealthy merchants - guests. Their name goes back to the Latin hostis (enemy, stranger, wanderer). But it was the movement of goods and their owners that created merchant fortunes in the Middle Ages. The most famous Novgorod merchant and no less famous traveler is the epic Sadko, a rich guest.

In Novgorod, the guests had a developed corporate organization at the church of Ivan-on-Opoki. The church kept common capital, documents and standards of measuring weights. The commercial court was carried out by a posadnik, an elected person of the best people of the city.

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Administration in the Novgorod Republic

From the point of view of state-legal development, a special place in the period of feudal fragmentation belongs to the New City Land.

Veliky Novgorod is located on both banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its source from Lake Ilmen. It was divided into two sides (Trading - on the eastern bank of the river and Sofia - on the western) and into "five ends". On the Sofia side there was a detinets (Novgorod Kremlin) and in it the cathedral church of St. Sophia - the main shrine of the Novgorod state. On the Trade side there was the main market square (bargaining) and the so-called Yaroslav's yard - a place for veche meetings. There was a veche tower with a veche bell. Nearby were the trading yards of foreigners - Gothic and German.

Novgorod was the capital of a huge territory that occupied the entire north of the Great Russian Plain. Of the Novgorod "suburbs" scattered over this vast expanse, the most important were Pskov, Staraya Rusa, Ladoga, Novy Torg, or Torzhok.

The main core of the Novgorod territory was divided into five lands, which from the end of the 15th century. were called fives. Further to the north and northeast were vast expanses of Novgorod lands, or volosts, stretching beyond the Urals to the Arctic Ocean.

The development of this territory was determined by a number of circumstances.

1. During its heyday, it did not know devastating raids, which allowed it to develop along an original path.

2. The vast size of the territory of the republic required special forms of government and lifestyle.

3. With all the originality of the Novgorod land, it was part of Rus' and did not separate itself from its problems.

At the head of Novgorod society (urban and rural) was a strong, influential and wealthy class of feudal lords who owned land, forests, and water areas. It can be divided into two groups: spiritual feudal lords - higher spiritual hierarchs, whose sources of income were land and patronage of trade; secular feudal lords - boyars, living people- Novgorod homeowners and landowners of the middle class, as well as natives- small landowners. In most cases, they were formed as a result of the ruin of their people's lives, the collapse of the land ownership of the urban community, or the purchase of small plots of land from peasants who left the rural community.

An important feature of Novgorod was the absence of a princely domain and the presence of land holdings of the urban community.

Two groups were distinguished in the Novgorod boyars - large landowners, descendants of the tribal nobility, and boyars - members of the urban community, which, due to their property status, determined their important role in the political life of the republic.

Merchants, artisans, "young people" should be singled out among the urban population. The most influential of them was a numerous and active layer of merchants who carried out trade operations with foreigners and Russians. The highest category of the Novgorod merchants was the merchant society at the church of St. John the Baptist. According to the founding charter of this society, "whoever wants to join the merchant class in Ivanskoye must make an introductory contribution of 50 hryvnias (pounds) of silver."

Below the merchants on the social ladder was the mass of the urban population, the so-called black people - small artisans and hired workers (carpenters, masons, potters, blacksmiths, etc.).

All sections of the free urban population enjoyed the same civil and political rights and, taking part in veche meetings, formed a political community, which legally owned the supreme power in the entire Novgorod state.

The free rural population was divided into two categories.

The first was landowners (countrymen), which sometimes united in partnerships or artels for the joint landownership and industrial exploitation of their lands and various lands - the so-called syabry, or warehouses. The second category included smerdy, who lived on the state lands of Veliky Novgorod, as well as on the lands of the church and private owners.

The rural population was united in special communities, called churchyards. The peasants were personally free and had the right to move from one landowner to another. There was self-government in the churchyards. The people gathered for a gathering (mainly on Sundays) to the church of their churchyard. Elders were elected here, they decided on the collection and distribution of taxes, the performance of duties, discussed their needs and held court.

The lowest rung of the social ladder in Novgorod land was occupied by serfs, who were servants in boyar courts and workers in large boyar estates.

In the X-XI centuries. Novgorod was under the rule of the Kyiv princes, who kept their governor in it (usually one of their sons) and to whom Novgorod, until the time of Yaroslav the Wise, paid tribute on an equal basis with other Russian lands. However, already under Yaroslav, there was a significant change in Novgorod's attitude towards the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Leaving Novgorod, Yaroslav gave the Novgorodians a “letter”, which determined their attitude towards the Grand Duke. According to this charter, Yaroslav granted certain rights and privileges to Novgorod.

As a result of the division of Rus' in the XI-XII centuries. Novgorod had the opportunity to invite one of the princes who was "loved" to him. Since that time, numerous reports can be found in the annals that the Novgorodians “expelled”, “expelled” or “expelled” some prince from themselves, “called”, “priyasha” or “planted” another to themselves.

From the end of the XIII century. all power in Novgorod, as well as in Pskov, which separated from it, passed to the republican bodies. In the XIV-XV centuries. in Novgorod and Pskov, a developed administrative and judicial bureaucracy is being formed, their own legal codes are being created - Novgorod and Pskov court letters.

The decisive factor in the evolution of the political system in Novgorod was the strengthening of its boyar-oligarchic character. The well-born Novgorod boyars are consolidating into a closed ruling caste, which did not allow even representatives of the lesser boyars, rich but not well-born feudal landowners (living people), to enter their midst and come to power.

Usurpation by the boyars of the republican authorities during the XIV-XV centuries. expressed primarily in a sharp increase in the number of posadniks (from one in the 12th-13th centuries, to 34-36 in the second half of the 15th century), representing exclusively the boyar nobility of the five city ends and, together with other senior officials (archbishop, thousand, Konchansky elders) Novgorod Senate - council of gentlemen boyar government of the republic.

Prince. Novgorod needed the prince mainly as the leader of the troops. But, giving the prince command of the armed forces, the Novgorodians did not allow him to independently conduct foreign policy affairs and start a war without the consent of the vech. Novgorodians demanded an oath from their prince that he would inviolably observe their rights and liberties.

Inviting a new prince, Novgorod entered into an agreement with him, precisely defining his rights and obligations. A number of such treaties have come down to us, the first of which dates back to 1265.

At the same time, the entire local administration was appointed from Novgorodians, and not from princely husbands. Novgorodians made sure that the prince and his retinue did not interfere in the internal life of Novgorod society and would not become an influential force in it. He and his court had to live outside the city, on Gorodische. He and his people were forbidden to take any of the Novgorodians into personal dependence, as well as to acquire landed property in the possessions of Veliky Novgorod.

Veche. Lord Veliky Novgorod was divided into "ends", "hundreds" and "streets", and all these divisions were self-governing communities. They had their own councils and elected representatives of sotsk, as well as Konchan and street elders for management. The union of these local communities constituted Veliky Novgorod, and its will was expressed in the general veche of the city. Veche was not convened at a fixed time, but only when the need arose. And the prince, and the posadnik, and any group of citizens could convene a veche. All free citizens of Novgorod gathered at Veche Square, all had the same right to vote. Sometimes residents of the Novgorod suburbs took part in the veche.

The competence of the Novgorod veche was comprehensive. It made laws and regulations. In particular, at the veche in 1471, the Novgorod Code of Laws, or the so-called Judgment Charter, was adopted and approved.

The veche had its own office (veche hut), headed by the veche clerk - the secretary. The resolutions or sentences of the veche were recorded and sealed with the seals of the lord of Veliky Novgorod (the so-called veche charters). Letters were written on behalf of the whole of Novgorod - its government and people.

A large Novgorod veche usually gathered on the trading side, in Yaroslav's yard. The huge crowd that gathered here did not always observe order and propriety. The decision was determined by eye, or rather, by ear, rather by the strength of the cries than by the majority of votes. In case of disagreement, noisy disputes arose at the veche, sometimes fights, and the “mastered” side was recognized by the majority. Sometimes two vechas gathered: one on the trading side, the other on the Sofia side. Some of the participants appeared "armored", that is, armed, and disputes between hostile parties sometimes reached the point of clashes on the bridge across the Volkhov.

At the head of the Novgorod administration were a sedate posadnik and power thousand.

The court was distributed by the Novgorod ruler between the princely governor, the posadnik and the thousand. In particular, the tysyatsky, together with a board of three elders from "living people" and two elders from merchants, was supposed to "manage all sorts of affairs" of the merchants and the "trading court". In appropriate cases, a joint court of different instances acted.

For "gossip", i.e., for the revision of cases decided in the first instance, there was a board of 10 "rapporteurs", one boyar and a representative from each "end". For executive, judicial and administrative-police actions, the higher administration had at its disposal a number of lower agents: bailiffs, podvoisky, callers, izvetniks, biriches.

The populous veche crowd, of course, could not discuss in detail the details of administration or individual articles of laws and treaties. She could only accept or reject the ready reports of the highest administration. For the preliminary development of the necessary measures and for the preparation of reports in Novgorod there was a special government council, or the Council of Masters. It consisted of the sedate posadnik and the thousand, Koncha elders, sotsk and old (i.e., former) posadniks and the thousand, the archbishop. The council, which included the top of the Novgorod boyars, had a great influence in the political life of Novgorod and often decided issues to be decided by the veche. It was a hidden, but very active system of Novgorod government.

In the regional administration of the Novgorod state, there was a duality of the beginnings of centralization and local autonomy. Posadniks were appointed from Novgorod to the suburbs. The courts of the older city served as the highest authority for suburbanites. Suburbs and all Novgorod volosts had to pay tribute to Mr. Veliky Novgorod.

Church. At the head of the Novgorod church was the lord (archbishop) of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. Beginning in 1156, a candidate for the archiepiscopal see was chosen by the Novgorod Veche, and then approved by the Metropolitan of All Rus'. In the XIII-XIV centuries. in Novgorod, a peculiar procedure was established for the election of the bishop: the veche elected three candidates, then three notes with their names were placed on the throne in the cathedral church of St. Sophia, and the lot decided who should be the archbishop. The archbishop was not only the head of the Novgorod church, but also had a huge influence on the political and social life of Veliky Novgorod.

Thus, feudal fragmentation became an objective, new political form of organization of society. In many spheres of public life there was an upward trend. The development of new lands was accompanied by an increase in the culture of agriculture, the development of arable farming, handicrafts, the production of weapons, products from various materials (silver, enamel, ceramics, etc.). The development of handicrafts was accompanied by the rapid growth of cities, the emergence of small-scale production, and the development of local markets.

In the political sphere, the new hereditary order of power made it more stable, and decentralization made it possible to better adapt the political structure of the lands to local conditions. In some lands, grand princely power was established in a monarchical form (Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities), others became boyar feudal republics (Novgorod, Pskov).

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