Nemov. general foundations of psychology (12)

Introduction.

Chapter 1. TYPES OF LEARNING.

Imprinting.

Conditioned reflex.

operant.

vicarious.

Verbal.

Chapter 2

2.1. The initial stage of learning.

2.2.Features of learning children in infancy.

2.3. Teaching children at an early age.

Conclusion.

Bibliography.

INTRODUCTION

concept learning are used when they want to emphasize the result of the teaching. It characterizes the fact that a person acquires new qualities and properties in the process of learning. Etymologically, this concept comes from the word “learn” and includes everything that an individual can actually learn.

Let us first note that far from everything that is connected with development can be called learning. For example, it does not include the processes and results that characterize the biological maturation of the organism, unfold and proceed according to biological, in particular genetic, laws. They are little or almost independent of training and learning. For example, the external anatomical and physiological similarity of the child and parents, the ability to grasp objects with their hands, follow them, and a number of others arise mainly according to the laws of maturation.

Every process called learning, however, is not entirely independent of maturation. This is recognized by all scientists, and the only question is what is the measure of this dependence and to what extent development is determined by maturation. It is hardly possible, for example, to teach a child to speak until the time when the necessary organic structures for this have matured: the vocal apparatus, the corresponding parts of the brain responsible for speech, and more. Learning, moreover, depends on the maturation of the organism in terms of the nature of the course of the process: it can be accelerated or inhibited in accordance with the acceleration or deceleration of the maturation of the organism. Learning to a much greater extent depends on maturation than, on the contrary, maturation on learning, since the possibilities of external influence on genotypically determined processes and structures in the body are very limited.

Chapter 1.

TYPES OF LEARNING

Imprinting

A person has several types of learning. The first and simplest of them unites man with all other living beings with a developed central nervous system. It - learning on the mechanism of imprinting, i.e. fast, automatic, almost instantaneous in comparison with the long process of learning the adaptation of the organism to specific conditions of life using practically ready-made forms of behavior. For example: it is enough to touch some solid object to the inner surface of the palm of a newborn, as his fingers automatically clench. As soon as the newborn touches the mother's breast, he has an inborn sucking reflex. Through the described mechanism of imprinting, numerous innate instincts are formed, including motor, sensory and others. According to the tradition that has developed since the time of I.P. Pavlov, such forms of behavior are called unconditioned reflexes.

conditioned reflex

The second type of learning conditioned reflex. The beginning of his research was laid by the works of IP Pavlov. This type of learning involves the emergence of new forms of behavior as conditioned responses to an initially neutral stimulus that did not previously cause a specific reaction. Stimuli that are capable of generating a conditioned reflex reaction of the organism must be perceived by it. All the main elements of the future reaction must also already be available in the body. Thanks to conditioned reflex learning, they are connected with each other into a new system that provides the implementation of a more complex form of behavior than elementary innate reactions. Subsequently, in this process, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal, or orienting, role. For example, a certain environment that has become habitual, in which an infant repeatedly finds himself during feeding, can begin to evoke organic processes and movements associated with eating in a conditioned reflex way.

operant

The third type of learning operant. With this type of learning, knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. It consists of the following. The task or situation faced by the individual generates in him a complex of various reactions: instinctive, unconditional, conditional. The body consistently tries each of them in practice to solve the problem and automatically evaluates the result achieved. That of the reactions or that random combination of them that leads to the best result, i.e., ensures the optimal adaptation of the organism to the situation that has arisen, is distinguished from the rest and fixed in the experiment. This is learning by trial and error.

vicarnoe

All the types of learning described are found in both humans and animals and represent the main ways in which various living beings acquire life experience. But a person also has special, higher ways of learning, rarely or almost not found in other living beings. This is, firstly, learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is called vicar and is presented in humans in the most developed form. According to the way of functioning and results, it resembles imprinting, but only in the sphere of acquiring social skills and abilities by a person. Vicarious learning is especially significant for a person in the early stages of ontogenesis, when, not yet possessing a symbolic function, the child acquires a rich and varied human experience, learning from visual examples through observation and imitation.

1.5 Verbal

Secondly, this verbal learning, i.e., the acquisition by a person of new experience through language. Thanks to him, a person has the opportunity to transfer to other people who speak, and to receive the necessary abilities, knowledge, skills and abilities, describing them verbally in sufficient detail and understandable for the student. Symbolic or verbal learning becomes the main way of acquiring experience, starting from the moment of mastering speech and, especially, when studying at school. Here, the highest mental functions of a person, his consciousness and speech, become the prerequisite and basis for effective learning.

Chapter 2

CHILDREN LEARNING IN INFANT AND EARLY AGE

2.1. The initial stage of learning

A child's learning actually begins from the moment he is born. From the very first days of his life, learning mechanisms such as imprinting and conditioned reflex learning come into play. Motor and food reflexes are detected in the child immediately after his birth. At this time, children develop distinct conditioned reflex reactions to light and some other stimuli. Then the following forms of learning appear: operant, vicarious and verbal (learning according to verbally given patterns or instructions). Thanks to the rapid progress of operant and vicarious learning, the child of infancy and early age improves motor skills, skills and speech with amazing speed and amazing success. As soon as an understanding of speech is found in him, verbal learning arises and is rapidly improved.

By the end of infancy, we already find in the child all five basic types of learning, the combined action of which ensures further rapid progress in psychological and behavioral development, especially noticeable at an early age. At first, all types of learning function as if independently of each other, and then their gradual integration occurs. Let us explain what has been said on the example of the four most important forms of lifetime acquisition of experience by a person: conditioned reflex, operant, vicarious and verbal.

Even I. P. Pavlov showed that a person has two signal systems, thanks to which he learns to respond to initially neutral, and then acquiring vital significance for him influences. This is the ability to respond to physical and chemical stimuli (sound, light, touch, vibration, smell, taste, etc.) and to the word. One signaling system is named first, and the other second. The second signaling system for a person is, of course, more important for acquiring life experience.

Using the word, an adult can draw the attention of the child to certain details of the situation, the features of the action being performed. A word pronounced as the name of one or another object or phenomenon becomes its conditional signal, and in this case an additional combination of a word with a reaction is usually not required. Such is the role of the word in conditioned reflex learning.

If learning is done by trial and error (operant conditioning), then here, too, the word makes the acquisition of new experience more perfect. With the help of a word, you can more clearly highlight in the mind of the child his successes and failures, pay attention to something significant, in particular, to what he receives encouragement for: for diligence, efforts or abilities. The word can direct the attention of the child, manage his activities.

2.2.Features of learning infancy

The main areas of learning for children in infancy are movements, mental processes: perception and memory, speech hearing and visual - effective thinking. Development motor activity the child is necessary to expand the possibilities of his independent movement in space, to explore and cognize the world around him, as well as to master objective actions. Without the acquisition of human properties by the corresponding processes, it is impossible for the child to further develop his own human abilities.

If from the very first days of life it was possible to begin active educational and educational work with the child, aimed at developing his cognitive processes and speech, then this should be done by starting to teach the child immediately after his birth. However, we know that in the first days of its existence, the human infant is one of the most helpless creatures in the world and, above all, requires physical care. Therefore, his physical education must be taken care of in the first place. It is not recommended, for example, to swaddle a child too tightly and keep him in this state for a long time. The arms and legs of the baby should be able to move freely from two to three weeks of age. The development of his motor abilities, skills and abilities in the future may depend on the movements of the baby in the first days and months of life. With him, starting from the age of one and a half months, it is necessary to carry out special physical exercises. It can be a light, stroking massage of the arms, legs, back and abdomen of the child. From three to four months plus free passive movement of the arms and legs of the child, their flexion and extension by the hands of an adult.

From four to six months, an adult should already carefully observe the child's own attempts, such as reaching and grabbing objects, turning from side to side, trying to take a sitting position. An approximate set of physical exercises for an infant of 6-7 months of age should mainly include helping the child in movements performed on his own initiative. At 9-12 months it is especially important to stimulate the child's own efforts to get up and walk. During classes, it is necessary to keep the child in a good mood and talk affectionately with him.

With age, as movements improve and develop, it is necessary stimulate child activity aimed at independent eating, dressing and undressing. Bathing and swimming with the help of an adult is useful for hardening and physical development. A child, starting from two to three months, should not only be surrounded by bright, colorful, beautiful and attractive toys that make various and pleasant sounds, but also be able to touch them, pick them up, move, turn, generate certain visual and auditory effects. All manipulative actions of the child with objects should not be hindered, since with the help of these actions, the baby actively learns the world around him. Here begins the formation of voluntary movements and cognitive interests. Maintaining and consolidating them at this age in the future can lead to the formation of an important need for a civilized person to acquire new knowledge.

In the second half of life, children begin to reproduce and repeat the movements of adults. Thus, they demonstrate readiness for vicarious learning with repeated exercises. This circumstance is of fundamental importance for the further general development of the child, in particular for the formation of his speech. Under the influence of adult speech, the child first develops a special speech hearing. The words uttered by an adult are connected by the infant with what he himself feels, sees and hears. This is how it goes primary learning of complex perception of speech, the ability to distinguish between its elements and understanding is formed.

Along with the assimilation of words denoting objects, it is necessary to ensure that the child learns to understand words related to the actions and features of objects. Particular attention during the formation of the child's speech should be paid to the development of hand movements. In the vocabulary of an adult, there should be enough words denoting such movements. These are words such as: “give”, “take”, “lift”, “throw”, “carry”, etc.

The main thing that a child should acquire by the end of infancy is it's upright. Almost from the first days of life, a baby has a special support motor reflex, which consists in the fact that when the palm touches the lower surface of the foot, the child automatically unbends and straightens the legs. This reflex can be used to actively develop his leg muscles, gradually preparing the child to stand on them.

Approximately by the beginning of the second half of life, the child's perception and memory reach such a level of development that he is quite capable of solving elementary tasks in a visually-effective way. From this moment on, it is time to take care of the development of the child's visual - effective thinking. For example, in front of a child, you can hide a toy, divert his attention for a few seconds and then ask him to find the hidden thing. Such questions and games with children not only develop well, but have a beneficial effect on thinking.

2.3. Early learning

Throughout childhood, the child's intellect improves, there is a transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking. Practical actions with material objects are gradually replaced by actions with images of these objects. The child takes another and very important step on the path of his intellectual development. Young children need to be given as many tasks as possible for the imagination, in particular drawing. Joint creative games with adults act as the main conditions for the development of the child's abilities.

The beginning of an early age is the entry into sensitive period of speech development. At the age of one to three years, the child is most receptive to the acquisition of speech. Passive perception and response to adult speech in early preschool childhood is replaced by active mastery of speech. The development of a child's speech in the initial period of its active use is based on operant and vicarious learning, outwardly acting as an imitation of the speech of adults. In the second year of life, the child's interest in the world around him sharply increases. Children want to know everything, touch it, hold it in their hands. They are especially interested in the names of new objects and phenomena, the names of the people around them. Having mastered the first words, children often ask adults the questions “what is this?”, “Who is this?”, “What is it called?”. Such questions should not be left unattended and should always be answered as completely as possible in order to satisfy the child's natural curiosity and promote his cognitive development.

Incorrect, too fast and slurred speech of adults hinders the speech development of children. It is necessary to speak with the child slowly, clearly pronouncing and repeating all words and expressions. By the end of the first year of life, the child already reacts animatedly to facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. From them, he captures the meaning of those words that adults pronounce. Therefore, when talking with young children, especially at the beginning of mastering active speech, it is necessary to widely use the language of facial expressions and gestures in communication.

We have already noted that young children are characterized by heightened curiosity. Its support leads to the rapid intellectual development of the child, to the acquisition of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, and the mental development of children of this age is carried out in various activities: in games, in classes with adults, in communication with peers, in the process of carefully observing that that surrounds him. Toys play an important role in the development of a child's curiosity. Among those toys that are at the disposal of children, there should be many such with the help of which children, imitating adults, could join the world of human relations. Here, there should be plenty of dolls depicting people and animals, cubes from which you can create various designs, household items, furniture, kitchen utensils, garden tools (all in a toy version). If the toy is accidentally broken, then it should not be thrown away, it is better to ask the baby and help him fix the toy. However, something else is important: from an early age, teach children to be careful and thrifty.

Another question is related to the education and upbringing of young children: how stable the consequences of early sensory-motor deprivation, i.e. depriving the child of the necessary stimuli for his psychophysical development, can become for the further psychological and behavioral development of the child. Children with whom adults had little contact at an early preschool age, who, for example, did not read books, were not encouraged to actively explore the world around them, who did not have the opportunity to play, these children, as a rule, noticeably lag behind their peers in psychological development. So-called pedagogically neglected children often grow out of them.

CONCLUSION

From all of the above, we can conclude that the necessary and important task of teaching children in the earliest years of their life is to ensure that learning proceeds with a combination of different forms: conditioned reflex with operant, vicarious with verbal, vicarious with operant. Such a combination is necessary because with different types of learning, different analyzers come into action and develop, and the experience gained with the help of different sense organs, as a rule, is the most versatile and rich. Recall, for example, that the correct perception of space is provided by the joint action of the visual, auditory, proprioceptive and skin analyzers.

The parallel work of different analyzers helps the development of the child's abilities. Conditioned reflex learning positively affects the ability of the senses to distinguish between physical stimuli (differential sensory ability). operant learning allows you to actively improve movements. vicarious learning improves observation, and verbal develops thinking and speech. If we use all four types of learning in teaching a child, then at the same time he will develop perception, motor skills, thinking and speech. That is why from early childhood, when starting to teach children, it is necessary to strive for a combination of different types of learning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook for students. higher textbook institutions: In 3 books. – 4th ed. – M.: Humanit. ed. Center VLADOS, 2001. - Book. 2: Educational psychology.

Pedagogical psychology: Textbook / V. Kazanskaya. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003.

Teaching preschool children ageThesis >> Psychology

We are sure that this is the result of upbringing in infant and early age. Domestic ... . According to the views of the classics of the theory learning and its representatives, more ... the presence of certain fears in children. And children from the preparatory group more often ...

The parallel work of different analyzers helps the development of the child's abilities. Any human ability is a combination and joint, coordinated work of many mental functions, each of which develops and improves in various types of activity and learning. Conditioned reflex learning has a positive effect on the ability of the senses to distinguish between physical stimuli (differential sensory ability). Operant learning allows you to actively improve movements. Vicarious learning improves observation, while verbal learning develops thinking and speech. If we use all four types of learning in teaching a child, then at the same time he will develop perception, motor skills, thinking and speech. That is why from early childhood, when starting to teach children, it is necessary to strive for a combination of different types of learning.

The main areas of learning for children in infancy are movements, mental processes: perception and memory, speech hearing and visual-effective thinking. The development of the child's motor activity is necessary to expand the possibilities of his independent movement in space, to explore and cognize the world around him. Without the acquisition of human properties by the corresponding processes, it is impossible for the child to further develop his own human abilities.
If from the very first days of life it was possible to begin active educational and educational work with the child, aimed at developing his cognitive processes and speech, then this should be done by starting to teach the child immediately after his birth. However, we know that in the first days of its existence, the human infant is one of the most helpless creatures in the world and, above all, requires physical care. Therefore, his physical education must be taken care of in the first place. It is not recommended, for example, to swaddle a child too tightly and keep him in this state for a long time. The arms and legs of the child should be able to move freely at two to three weeks of age. The development of his motor abilities, skills and abilities in the future may depend on the movements of the baby in the first days and months of life.
Until the baby stands on his own feet and learns to move independently, with him, starting from the age of one and a half months, it is necessary to regularly carry out special physical exercises. At the age of 1.5 to 3 months, this can be a light, stroking massage of the arms, legs, back and abdomen of the child. From three to four months, it is recommended to apply rubbing and warming up of the same parts of the body, free passive movement of the arms and legs of the child, their flexion and extension by the hands of an adult.
From four to six months, an adult should already carefully observe the child's own attempts to independently perform various purposeful movements and stimulate them in every possible way. Such movements that require support can be reaching and grabbing objects, turning from side to side, trying to get into a sitting position, get on all fours, kneel, stand on your own and take the first steps. An approximate set of physical exercises for an infant of 6-7 months of age should mainly include helping the child in movements performed by him on his own initiative. At 9-12 months, it is especially important to stimulate the child's own effort to get up and walk.
All physical exercises are recommended to be done daily during waking hours, 20-30 minutes before feeding or 30-40 minutes after it in the morning, afternoon and evening, but no later than 3-4 hours before a night's sleep. Physical activities with the child should be carried out on a smooth, hard surface, covered with a soft, clean rug or flannelette blanket with a diaper or sheet on top. The hands of an adult should be dry and clean.
It is desirable that physical activities with children are constantly carried out by the same person, not necessarily the mother. It is even better if the father does it at a time when the mother is busy with some other business. During classes, it is necessary to keep the child in a good mood and talk affectionately with him.
With age, as movements improve and develop, it is necessary to stimulate the activity of the child, aimed at independent eating, dressing and undressing. For hardening and physical development of the child, it is useful to bathe and swim with the help of an adult or in special swimming accessories that support the baby on the surface of the water.
A child, starting from two or three months, should not only be surrounded by bright, colorful, beautiful and attractive toys that make various and pleasant sounds, but also be able to touch them, pick them up, move, turn, generate certain visual and auditory effects. . All manipulative actions of the child with objects should not be hindered, since with the help of these actions the baby actively learns the world around him. Here begins the formation of voluntary movements and cognitive interests. Maintaining and consolidating them at this age in the future can lead to the formation of an important need for a modern civilized person to acquire new knowledge.
In the second half of life, children begin to reproduce and repeat the movements of adults. Thus, they demonstrate readiness for vicarious learning with repeated independent exercises. This circumstance is of fundamental importance for the further general development of the child, in particular for the formation of his speech. Under the influence of the speech of adults, the child first develops a special speech ear. It includes a number of successively formed elementary and more complex abilities: phonemic hearing (familiarization with the sounds of speech that make up words); rules for combining phonemes into syllables and words (learning phonological rules); the ability to single out the main significant units of the language in the speech stream (morphemic hearing); mastering the rules of their combination (syntax).
In order for the infant's speech hearing to take shape as soon as possible, it is necessary, starting from two months, to talk with the child as much as possible while feeding and performing other tasks to care for him. At the same time, the child should clearly see the face and hands of the person pronouncing the words, since through facial expressions and gestures they convey information about what is simultaneously indicated with the help of words.
The words uttered by adults are connected by the infant with what he himself feels, sees and hears. This is how the primary learning of the complex perception of speech takes place, the ability to distinguish between its elements and understanding is formed.
Along with the assimilation of words denoting objects, it is necessary to ensure that the child learns to understand words related to the actions and features of objects. They should be used in communication with a child from about 8-9 months of age, when he has already learned to independently perform elementary voluntary movements, associated, for example, with changing posture, grasping, moving objects, turning his own body over, moving its parts: hands, legs, head. Particular attention during the formation of the child's speech should be paid to the development of hand movements. In the vocabulary of an adult communicating with a baby, there should be enough words denoting such movements. These are words such as "give", "take", "lift", "throw", "bring", "carry", etc. The success of assimilation and understanding of speech increases significantly if, along with proper verbal communication with an adult and during it, the child has the opportunity to actively manipulate objects called adults, independently explore them, study them carefully.
The main thing that a child should acquire by the end of infancy is upright posture and a variety of hand movements. Under natural conditions, this occurs to one degree or another in all children, but with certain individual differences, sometimes reaching two or three months in time. With the help of certain actions, you can accelerate the motor development of children. Such actions should be based on the child's natural internal urges to make certain movements.
Almost from the first days of life, a baby has a special supporting motor reflex, which consists in the fact that when the palm touches the lower surface of the foot, the child automatically unbends and straightens the legs. This reflex can be used to actively develop his leg muscles, gradually preparing the child to stand on them.
For the development of the movements of the arms and legs of the child and his accelerated preparation for upright posture, coordination of hand and foot movements is very important. It is important that the child, being in a state of wakefulness, can simultaneously touch the surrounding objects with their feet, leaning on them, grab them with their hands, first lying down, and then sitting and moving along the surface. This will prepare the coordinated movements of his arms and legs and the corresponding muscle groups.
Approximately by the beginning of the second half of the year of life, the perception and memory of the child, his motor activity reach such a level of development that he is quite capable of solving elementary tasks in a visually effective plan. From this moment on, it is time to take care of the development of visual-effective thinking in the child. It is now necessary for the baby to more often set various kinds of tasks for the visual and motor search for familiar and attractive objects. For example, in front of a child, you can hide a toy, divert his attention for a few seconds and then ask him to find the hidden thing. Such questions and games with children not only develop memory well, but have a beneficial effect on thinking.

During early childhood, the child's intellect improves, there is a transition from visual-active to visual-figurative thinking. Practical actions with material objects are gradually replaced by actions with images of these objects. The child takes another and very important step on the path of his intellectual development. In order for this development to continue at an accelerated pace, young children need to be given as many tasks for the imagination as possible. Their independence and desire for artistic and technical design, creativity, in particular, drawing should be especially encouraged. Communication with adults, joint creative games with them act as the main conditions for the development of a child's abilities.
The beginning of an early age is the entry into a sensitive period of speech development. Between the ages of one and three, children are most receptive to language acquisition. Here, the formation of those prerequisites for mastering human speech that arose even in infancy is completed - speech hearing, the ability to understand speech, including the language of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. Passive perception and response to the speech of an adult, for which the child is practically already prepared by the end of infancy, is replaced by active mastery of speech in early preschool childhood.
The development of a child's speech in the initial period of its active use is based on operant and vicarious learning, which outwardly acts as an imitation of the speech of adults. In the second year of life, the child's interest in the world around him sharply increases. Children want to know everything, touch it, hold it in their hands. At this age, they are especially interested in the names of new objects and phenomena, the names of the people around them, they expect appropriate explanations from adults. Having mastered the first words, children often ask adults the questions “what is this?”, “Who is this?”, “What is it called?”. Such questions should not be left unattended and should always be answered as completely as possible in order to satisfy the child's natural curiosity and promote his cognitive development.
Incorrect, too fast and slurred speech of adults hinders the speech development of children. It is necessary to speak with the child slowly, clearly pronouncing and repeating all words and expressions. By carefully observing the actions of adults, by the end of the first year of life, the child already reacts animatedly to his facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. From them, he catches the meaning of those words that are pronounced by adults. Therefore, when talking with young children, especially at the beginning of mastering active speech, it is necessary to widely use the language of facial expressions and gestures in communication.
Children in the process of speech development imitate their parents, brothers and sisters more than other people. The more often, communicating with the child, his closest relatives talk to him, the faster the child himself learns speech. Support and approval of the child's own speech activity from the surrounding people play an important role in the development of his speech. The best way to teach and practically evaluate the level of speech development achieved by the child is the mother. If she utters the same words, then the child understands them better and reacts more intelligently to them than to similar statements of other people.
Parents who monitor children's speech development sometimes have concerns about delays in the start of their active speech. If a child speaks little until about two years old, but understands well the words of an adult addressed to him, then there should be no serious grounds for worrying about his speech development. Children who had previously spoken little, between two and three years, often show a significant and rapid increase in their own speech activity, catching up with their peers. There are significant, normal individual differences in the nature and rate of assimilation of active speech by the child, which should not cause concern.
At the age of about three years, the child begins to listen attentively and with obvious interest to what adults are talking about among themselves. In this regard, their speech should be varied and become such that it is understandable to the child.
Another important point related to the speech development of a young child is the possibility for children to learn two languages ​​at the same time: native and non-native. It can be assumed that the most favorable period of time for the beginning of the parallel study of two languages ​​is precisely the early preschool age. However, both languages ​​here must be taught using the same methods. It is important that in different languages ​​consistently, without moving from one language to another, certain people constantly speak to the child in different situations. In this case, the phenomenon of linguistic interference will not arise or will be rather soon and successfully overcome.
We have already noted that young children are characterized by increased curiosity. Its support leads to the rapid intellectual development of the child, to the acquisition of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, and the mental development of children of this age is carried out in various activities: in games, in classes with adults, in communication with peers, in the process of carefully observing that that surrounds the child. Toys are of particular importance for the development of a child's curiosity. Among those toys that are at the disposal of children, there should be many such with the help of which children, imitating adults, could join the world of human relations. Here, there should be plenty of dolls depicting people and animals, cubes from which you can create various designs, household items, furniture, kitchen utensils, garden tools (all in a toy version), various tools for making simple crafts.
The presence of tools in the hands of a young child is especially important for the improvement of his intelligence, creative imagination and for the development of abilities. The child, with the help of the tools at his disposal, must first of all learn to put in order, repair his own toys. If the toy is accidentally broken, then it should not be thrown away, even if the parents are able to buy a new one.
It is better to ask the kid and help him fix the toy. Of course, at this age, children are unlikely to be able to do this on their own. However, something else is important: from an early age to accustom children to accuracy, diligence and thrift.
Another important question is related to the education and upbringing of children of early preschool age: how stable the consequences of early sensory-motor deprivation, i.e. depriving the child of the necessary incentives for his psychophysical development. If we are talking about purely motor skills, i.e. about some lack of opportunities for free movement in space, then the delays in this regard, observed at an early age, over time, as a rule, are overcome without any serious consequences. In other areas of development, such as language, emotion, and intelligence, the effects of early sensory deprivation may be more severe and persistent. Children whose capabilities in relation to these mental functions were significantly limited at the age from birth to two or three years of life, i.e. those with whom adults had little contact in early preschool childhood, who, for example, did not read books, were not encouraged to actively explore the world around them, who did not have the opportunity to play, these children, as a rule, noticeably lag behind their peers in psychological development. So-called pedagogically neglected children often grow out of them.

Topic 1. The initial stage of learning
1. The first signs of learning in infants.
2. The special importance of learning in the first year of a child's life.
3. The role of the word at the initial stage of learning.
Topic 2. Combination of different forms of learning
1. The need to combine different forms of learning for the accelerated psychological and behavioral development of the child.
2. The optimal combination of different types of learning.
Topic 3. Features of learning infancy
1. The main areas of learning in infants.
2. Improving the motor activity and physical development of the child during the first year of life.
3. Formation of prerequisites for active speech development.
4. Formation of visual-effective thinking.
Topic 4. Early learning
1. Factors contributing to the transition of the child from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking.
2. The beginning of a sensitive period in the development of active speech.
3. Methods for stimulating the speech activity of a child of one and a half to two years of age.
4. Organization of communication of a young child with other people.
5. Development of imagination and speech thinking.
6. The developing value of children's games. Requirements for children's toys.
7. The problem of early bilingualism and its solution in the initial period of active speech development.

Topics for abstracts

1. Features of learning children in infancy.
2. Learning at an early age.

1. Means of accelerated mental and behavioral development of children at an early age.
2. Ways and means of improving the speech and thinking of a young child.

Literature
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Psychology of preschool children. Development of cognitive processes. - M., 1964. (Sensory development at an early age (up to a year): 17-35.)
Ranshburg I., Popper P. Secrets of personality. - M., 1983. (Development of motor activity at an early age: 29-41.)
Rutter M. Help for difficult children. M., 1987. (Infancy and first year of life: 82-90. Early age (second year of life): 91-97.)
II
Kyarandashev Yu.N. Development of representations in children: Textbook. - Minsk, 1987. (Development of ideas in the first year of life: 14-24. Development of ideas in children at an early age: 24-43.)
Carlson L. et al. Child from 0 to 2 years old. Development in interaction with other people. - M., 1983. (Understanding by adults and children of each other. Children's knowledge of the world around them. Self-knowledge. Mode of life and getting used to new conditions, "Games of young children.)
Novoselova S.A. The development of thinking at an early age. - M., 1978.

Improving perception, memory and thinking. The concepts of sensory standard and perceptual action. Development of children's perception through the doubling of sensory standards and the formation of perceptual actions. The value of perception for identifying artistic and visual and design and technical abilities. The main directions of improving the memory of a preschooler. Giving memory arbitrariness, indirect character. The development of memorization tools. In-game imprint. The need for adequate motivation for memorization and reproduction of material in children of early preschool age. Repetition as a sign of the beginning of arbitrary memorization. Improving the ways of repeating the material. Ways of development of means of memorization. Identification of a mnemonic goal, setting and solving mnemonic tasks. The value of the development of thinking for the improvement of memory. The main stages in the development of thinking as an internal plan of action.
Teaching speech, reading and writing. Ways of speech development in preschool age. Techniques for the development of speech in a child, its intellectualization. The role of children's word creation and egocentric speech in the verbal development of the child. The beginning of learning foreign languages. Preschool age as the beginning of a sensitive period in the acquisition of a foreign language. The value of correctly placed stress for learning to read words and phrases. Graphic and symbolic drawings of the child as prerequisites for the development of writing. Opportunities and conditions for teaching writing at an earlier, 3-5-year-old age. The importance of adequate motivation for learning to read and write for learning success. The role of the game in this process. Conditions for the successful acquisition of foreign languages ​​by children of preschool age.
Preparing for teaching at school. There are two main factors that determine the psychological readiness of a child to study at school: personal-motivational and intellectual-cognitive. The structure of motivation, ensuring the readiness of a preschooler to master school knowledge, skills and abilities. The role of cognitive interests, the need for self-improvement, communication, achievement of success, adequate self-esteem and the optimal level of claims. The main motivational (acceptance and preservation of the task, attitude to comments and offered assistance) and structural (structure of activity) signs of a preschooler's readiness for educational activities. Functional signs of readiness: the nature of indicative, performing and control educational activities.
Developing educational and didactic games and forms of classes with preschool children. Difficulties of a motivational nature that arise when teaching children from 4-5 years of age. The need to generate and maintain a constant interest in knowledge in such children. Ways to overcome these difficulties by conducting training in a specially organized educational and didactic games. The main psychological and pedagogical requirements for this kind of games: direct interest in classes; giving children the opportunity to show their abilities; high assessment of the abilities of children and their achievements by adults; inclusion of the child in the competition; the possibility of winning the competition by acquiring new knowledge, skills and abilities; the availability of simple sources of knowledge, skills and abilities that the child can use independently; stimulating success by emphasizing that it is received for the effort and diligence. Basic requirements for individual ifs of children; simplicity, accessibility, constructive character, acquisition of new knowledge, formation of skills and abilities.

The development of the child's basic cognitive processes in preschool childhood can proceed spontaneously and in a controlled manner, in an organized and unorganized way, and the level of intelligence achieved by the child by the age of 6-7, as well as the degree of his readiness for learning at school, significantly depend on how thoughtful the child's education was in family and preschool during the previous three to four years. These years make a great contribution to the cognitive development of children. It is no coincidence that the leading activity at this age is the game, supplemented, of course, by other activities that affect the development of the child, including communication.
At this age, children have great opportunities for improving cognitive processes, primarily perception through the formation of sensory actions, consciously regulated and directed to the transformation of perceived reality in order to build its adequate images. The sensory abilities of children, according to LL. Wenger, are determined by the number of those perceptual actions that the child owns46. The formation of perceptual actions, in turn, depends on the selection and assimilation by the child of systems of sensory standards, i.e. sensory properties of objects that are distinguished during their perception by adults and fixed in the language in the form of concepts. Sensory standards as patterns of perception have developed historically and do not present any particular difficulty for their assimilation by an adult. At the same time, they are a problem for a preschool child, who needs to be specially taught to compare the properties of specific objects perceived through the senses, to correlate them with standards. Such reference samples in the perception of the shape of objects, for example, can be known geometric figures (line, angle, triangle, rectangle, circle, square, etc.); when perceiving color - the spectrum and various shades of its primary colors in terms of saturation and brightness; when perceiving the size of objects - gradations of measures and differences in values ​​(length, area, volume).
Having introduced the child to these standards, he must be taught to use them in practice to establish the appropriate properties of perceived objects, i.e. teach perceptual actions. The improvement of perceptual actions, the mastery of new types of such actions, L.A. Wenger believes, ensures the improvement of perception with age, the acquisition of greater accuracy, dissection and a number of other qualities inherent in the developed perception of an adult. The high quality of perception, in turn, forms the basis for the formation of those special abilities for which perfect perceptual actions are important: artistic, design and others.
In parallel with the development of perception in preschool childhood, there is a process of improving the child's memory, and if for perception the possibilities of development at this age are more or less limited, then for memory they are much wider. Its improvement in preschool children can go in several directions at once. The first is giving the processes of memorization an arbitrary character, the second is the transformation of the child's memory from direct to indirect, the third is the development of means and methods of both memorization and recall. Let's consider each of these directions separately.
From the younger preschool age to the older one, there are noticeable changes in memory. First of all, by the end of preschool childhood, memory becomes a special, independently controlled mental function of the child, which he can control to one degree or another. In the younger and middle preschool age (3-4 years), the memorization and reproduction of material is still part of various types of activity, it is carried out mainly involuntarily. In older preschool age, thanks to the setting of special mnemonic tasks for children, a transition is made to involuntary memory. The more such tasks a preschooler faces in play, communication and work, the faster his memory turns from involuntary to arbitrary. At the same time, mnemonic actions are singled out in a special group among other types of actions performed in connection with the implementation of a particular activity47. Mnemic - these are actions aimed at remembering, preserving and reproducing information.
Especially quickly and easily mnemonic actions arise and separate in the game, and in all age groups of preschoolers, starting from the age of three or four. In children of primary and secondary preschool age, due to the peculiarities of their psychology and insufficient readiness for serious purposeful activities, in particular educational ones, the productivity of memorization in the game is noticeably higher than in other types of activity. This sometimes gives the erroneous impression that a three or four-year-old child has a weak memory, especially when they try to test his memory directly using the same methods and under the same conditions that are used to study the memory of adults.
For the development of a child’s arbitrary memory, it is important to catch in time and make the most of his desire to remember something. Activities associated with the conscious intention to remember or recall first appear distinctly in children around the age of five or six. Outwardly, they are expressed, for example, in the deliberate repetition by the child of what he would like to remember. Stimulation of repetition plays an important role in the development of memory, and repetitions should be encouraged in every possible way. Repetitions transfer information from short-term to long-term memory.
When teaching memorization, it is necessary to gradually accustom children to move from immediate repetition to delayed, from repetition aloud to repetition to themselves. The transition from external to mental repetition usually intellectualizes memorization and makes it more productive. From the age of four, children can be taught to memorize some things with the help of others, for example, an object or a word with the help of a picture denoting it. At first, an adult offers ready-made means for memorization to the child. When children learn to memorize and recall objects with the help of the means offered to them, it is possible to move on to setting the child the task of independently choosing the means for memorization.
The course of development and improvement of mnemonic means can be imagined as follows:
1. The transition from specific mnemonic means (memorizing some objects with the help of others) to abstract ones (memorizing objects with the help of signs, drawings, diagrams, etc.).
2. The transition from mechanical to logical means of storing and reproducing material.
3. Transition from external means of memorization to internal ones.
4. The transition from the use of ready-made or known means of memorization to new, original, invented by the memorizers themselves.
Following this course of development in improving the means of memorization and reproduction ensures the gradual formation of mediated and voluntary memorization in the child, while simultaneously developing mnemotechnical means. The fact that the development of memory in preschoolers in all these areas is quite possible, shows the experiments conducted by ZM Istomina. She found that six-seven-year-old children, even under normal conditions, without the use of special mnemotechnical training, can independently form mental logical connections between memorized words. The presence of such connections in the child's memory is evidenced by the nature of his reproduction of the material, in particular the fact that, when recalling from memory, a child of this age can change the order of naming objects, combining them by meaning into semantic groups. In this regard, let us consider one illustrative experiment.
Children of different ages are offered the same material with a request to memorize it in two different ways: directly or with the help of special auxiliary mnemonic tools. An analysis of the methods that children use in this case for memorization shows that those who solve the problem with the help of auxiliary means build their operations differently than those who memorize directly. For indirect memorization, it is not so much the power of mechanical memory that is required, but the ability to reasonably dispose of the material, to structure it in a certain way, i.e. not only memory, but also developed thinking.
One important point that distinguishes the learning of children from the learning of adults should be borne in mind. A child learns material relatively easily only when he has a clearly expressed direct cognitive or consumer interest in this material. This remark also applies to memory. Its development in preschool children from involuntary to voluntary and from direct to indirect will proceed actively only when the child himself is interested in using the appropriate means of memorization, in preserving and reproducing the memorized material. A preschooler, for example, is aware of and highlights mnemonic goals only if he is faced with an interesting task for him, which requires active memorization and recall. This happens, in particular, when the child participates in the game, and the goal of remembering something acquires for him a real, concrete and relevant meaning that meets the interests of the game.
The most important moment in the child's transition from involuntary to voluntary memorization is the selection and acceptance of a mnemonic goal by him, i.e. the formation of an internal setting for memorizing the material. But this acts only as a first step towards the development of arbitrary memory. Next, conscious techniques and means of memorization must be worked out, the simplest of which is the repetition of material. It is also necessary to take care that the child learns to use certain stimuli-means for remembering.
Improving arbitrary memory in children is associated with the use of mental operations of analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, and the establishment of semantic connections in the processes of memorizing and reproducing material. We can say that the improvement of the child's memory occurs simultaneously with the improvement of his mental activity in direct proportion to it.
If you start teaching a child to use mnemonic techniques before he has the first signs of arbitrary memorization in the process of natural memory development, then you can ensure that this type of memorization and reproduction of material will begin to take shape in children not by the age of five or six, but earlier . It has been established that with properly organized learning, a pronounced effect in the development of memory can be achieved already at a younger preschool age, i.e. one and a half to two years earlier than usual. However, for this to happen, a number of conditions must be met. At the first stage of training, children must learn to compare and correlate the studied material with each other, form semantic groupings based on the selection of certain essential features, learn to perform these operations when solving mnemonic problems.
In turn, the formation of the ability to classify the material must also go through three stages: practical, verbal and completely mental. It is shown that as a result of mastering the methods of grouping and classification as cognitive actions, it is possible to improve the memory of children of primary preschool age. In middle and older preschool childhood, such children already quite consciously, successfully use this kind of techniques when memorizing and reproducing material, thereby demonstrating a pronounced ability for arbitrary memorization and reproduction of material.
Discussing the development of memory in children, we approached the problem of thinking. The prospects and limits of the development of a preschooler's memory, especially in the pre-preschool years, are ultimately determined by his intellectual capabilities. If it is possible to find the key to controlling the development of the child's thinking, then this means that opportunities are opening up for improving all his other cognitive processes.
Since the most important feature of the psychological mechanism of the human intellect is the presence of an internal plan of action in it, then special attention should be paid to its formation and development in preschool age. N.N. Poddyakov showed that the development of an internal action plan in preschool children goes through the following stages:
1st stage. The child is not yet able to act in the mind, but is already capable of manipulating things on a visual-active plane, transforming the objective situation directly perceived by him with the help of practical actions. At this stage, the development of thinking consists in the fact that at first the situation is given to the child visually, in all its essential features, and then some of them are excluded, and the emphasis is placed on the child's memory. Initially, the development of the intellect proceeds through the development of recalling what was previously seen or heard, felt or done, through the transfer of once found solutions to the problem to new conditions and situations.
2nd stage. Here speech is already included in the statement of the problem. The task itself can be solved by the child only on the external plane, by direct manipulation of material objects or by trial and error. Some modification of the previously found solution is allowed when it is transferred to new conditions and situations. The solution found in verbal form can be expressed by the child, so at this stage it is important to get him to understand the verbal instructions, formulate and explain in words the solution found.
3rd stage. The problem is solved already in a visual-figurative plan by manipulating the images-representations of objects. The child is required to be aware of the methods of action aimed at solving the problem, their division into practical - the transformation of the objective situation and theoretical - awareness of the method of transformation.
4th stage. This is the final stage, at which the task, following its visual-effective and imaginative solution found, is reproduced and implemented according to an internally presented plan. Here, the development of intelligence is reduced to the formation in the child of the ability to independently develop a solution to the problem and consciously follow it. Thanks to this learning, there is a transition from the external to the internal plan of action.

Speech development continues during preschool age. It, as L.S. Vygotsky showed, goes along the line of connecting speech with thinking and its intellectualization. This is the formation of concepts, the logic of reasoning, the semantic enrichment of the word, the differentiation and generalization of verbal meanings. Speech at preschool age gradually turns into the most important tool for the child's thinking.
In the fifth year of life, children usually have a period of "why-why", and soon after it, the age of children's word creation begins. Children at this time ask adults a lot of questions of a cognitive nature, show increased interest in words. Their vocabulary grows rapidly, speech becomes richer, grammatically and syntactically complex.
At this age, which belongs to the sensitive period in the development of speech, the main educational task is to enrich the child's vocabulary, to master the concepts, to understand the ambiguity of the words used and their semantic shades. All this is facilitated by the parallel activation and joint use of various types of speech: dialogic, monologue, reproductive, creative, intonationally different. It is necessary for the child to develop and improve the ability to tell and reason aloud, to specifically encourage him to actively use speech when solving problems.
At this age, it is useful to conduct intellectual word games with children on the topics: "What is the name of ...?", "What words do you know that stand for ...?", "What word can be used instead of ...?" and others. Children can be given tasks to describe an object after its careful examination, to talk about what the child has heard or seen.
Of great benefit in the development of speech is the reading of stories and fairy tales with the passing attention of the child to the new and interesting words found in them. When developing a coherent monologue speech, it is useful to teach the child to retell small read texts, using the new words that are found in them.
Even more conducive to the development of speech and at the same time thinking of a preschooler is the fulfillment of tasks for independently inventing stories and fairy tales. True, not all children of this age are able to cope with such complex tasks, but the very attempts of this kind are of great benefit to children in their development. Various auxiliary objects that the child can observe and use in the process of inventing a story, during the transmission of its content, are very helpful in solving verbal problems.
Some psychologists who have studied the development of speech in a child of preschool age believe that bilingualism is good for children in these years. At this age, it is necessary to begin or actively continue the acquisition of a second language already begun in early childhood, and when studying both languages ​​- native and non-native - it is desirable to simultaneously study the structures of the languages ​​themselves as objectively existing sign systems. It is shown that preschool children are quite able to learn the elementary laws of the language starting from the middle preschool age, when their linguistic phonemic and grammatical sense is especially developed. The age of the child after four or five years is obviously sensitive in terms of language acquisition, in contrast to the age from one to three years, which is a sensitive period in the development of speech. It has been established that, with proper training, four-year-old preschoolers are able to distinguish sounds in a word, distinguish between vowels and consonants, hard and soft, voiced and deaf sounds. This at the senior preschool age is largely facilitated by children's word creation, teaching reading and writing.
After the child has learned to read letters and syllables, it is important to teach him how to properly stress. On this basis, further learning to read in whole words is underway. Such reading is successfully formed as a result of isolating and placing the stress in the word, the subsequent perception of the word with an orientation towards the stressed vowel sound. Awareness of stress and its word-distinctive role enriches children's ideas about their native language, contributes to the development of theoretical knowledge about it. It is only when a child has reached an intonationally fused sound of a phrase that the child begins to truly understand what he has read.
Learning to read goes through two stages: analytical and synthetic. At the analytical stage, children master the reading of individual parts of words, grasp the relationships that exist between sounds and letters, master the mechanism of reading syllables, combining them into words (syllabic reading). The synthetic stage involves learning to read whole words, phrases, sentences and phrases, as well as mastering the intonational combination of sentences, understanding a coherent text. By teaching six-year-old children, it is possible to ensure that by the age of seven they already have the skills of synthetic reading. To do this, it is necessary to conduct training with the allocation of the following stages:
1. Development of attention to the grammatical features of words (prepositions, word endings, their order in a sentence) and clarification of their role in the connection of words in a sentence.
2. Learning to predict when reading, that is, the ability to guess about the possible semantic and verbal continuation of the text.
3. Learning to read words together, reducing unstressed vowels in them.
4. Teaching the selection and continuous reading of the so-called phonetic word (word with auxiliary words and particles adjacent to it).
5. Formation of the ability to combine words into phrases, read them without re-reading.
6. Teaching the actual reading of the sentence (an explanation of the term "actual" will be given later in the text).
When starting to teach a child to read, he first of all needs to develop the necessary intonation and set up for a holistic perception of an ordered sequence of words. N.S. Starzhinskaya, who singled out the described stages48, believes that when perceiving the first word (or several first words) of a sentence, a synthetic hypothetical scheme of the sentence arises in the reader’s head, into which the read words are then placed and on the basis of which the meaning of the statement is predicted. In order for a child to learn to read like this, he must be taught to perceive not only words, but also informational grammatical signals, primarily the endings of words and words that connect them with each other into a sentence, into a single semantic whole. Simultaneously with the unification of words, the sentence must be divided into semantic groups - syntagmas, which are the simplest units of speech expressing a semantic whole. The division of a sentence into syntagmas is called actual division. Actual reading, in turn, is a reading that is built on actual articulation.
The improvement of reading must be accompanied by the development of writing, and vice versa, the development of writing implies the improvement of reading, since both these functions are interconnected. Based on the analysis of data obtained in psychological studies of children's symbolic drawings, generalization of observations of the development of written speech in children in its initial forms, L.S. Vygotsky came to the following conclusions, which have not lost their significance even today.
1. Teaching children to write can and should be transferred from primary school to preschool age and made the responsibility of preschool education, since almost 80% of children of primary preschool age already know how to arbitrarily connect a sign-drawing with the object designated by it.
With psychologically thought-out and properly organized training, children of this age are able to combine a word-meaning materialized in a drawing with an object corresponding to it. In any case, practically all six-year-old children are capable of carrying out operations with abstract signs. As for symbolic writing (letter-drawing), in the overwhelming majority of cases even three-year-old children could master it.
2. Reading and writing can be taught to children as early as four or five years of age. The real problems faced by teaching these skills at this age are not related to mastering or the ability to master the technique and essence of writing, not with the ability or inability to correlate abstract symbols with specific drawings, but with the child’s lack of need to develop written language and use it. .
3. The main task of preschool learning to write, as well as teaching other complex, abstract things at an earlier age, is to make what is learned necessary and interesting for the child, to closely connect the material being studied with his actual needs.
4. Reading and writing for a preschooler should become the conditions for satisfying the most important needs in the natural, most attractive form of activity - the game.
5. First, the child must be taught not to write letters, but to write as a special form of expressing the need to say something.
However, it should be borne in mind that the proper result in teaching preschool children to read and write can be achieved only if the teaching methods used themselves take into account the age-related psychophysiological characteristics of children, their interests and needs. Every time you start teaching a child, you need to ask yourself the question: "How to interest him in acquiring the appropriate knowledge, skills and abilities?" It must always be remembered that the basis of the natural speech development of a person is his need for communication, stimulated by the need to satisfy other needs.
The same applies to teaching children of this age a second, non-native language. It should also be based on the psychological and pedagogical principle of the actual vital need for appropriate knowledge for the child. The situation of learning a second language should be, for example, such that without knowing the appropriate words and expressions, the child would not be able to get what is especially interesting for him.
It has long been noted that children born and raised in different cultures easily and quickly, starting at the age of one, learn their native language. This, in particular, occurs because by this time one language is already well known to them. This is the language of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. At its core, it is innate, and therefore there is no need for special training in it. Almost all people, including adults and children, can use this language and understand each other on its basis, without special training. The presence of this universal language of communication and its development in a child is a good basis for mastering more complex, verbal sign languages. When building a methodology for teaching children a foreign language at a time when they have not yet mastered their native language well enough, it is necessary to rely as widely as possible on the language of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, especially at the first stages of learning.
Mastering the very first sentences of the native language, the child first learns and actively uses the simplest interrogative sentences of the cognitive type: "Who is this?", "What is this?", "What is it called?". These sentences should first of all be learned by the child when teaching a foreign language, since without them, active participation in communication on his part will be difficult. Self-asked questions by children stimulate the people around them, encourage them to use a foreign language in communication. Having introduced children to short and simple phrases such as questions, it is necessary to further provide them with the opportunity to ask these questions to adults. Here it is also advisable to be guided by the principle in teaching: it is not the adult who determines the topics and means of communication for the child, but the child himself, relying on his needs and skills, independently and in accordance with natural interests, chooses the topics and means of communication, prompting the adult to him. When children learn their native language in this way, then in their vocabulary certain parts of speech appear one after another in a certain sequence: first nouns, then verbs, then adjectives and auxiliary words - conjunctions, prepositions, particles and interjections. In the same sequence, it is advisable to learn foreign vocabulary.

The formation and improvement of cognitive processes in preschool childhood ensures not only the intellectual development of the child, but also his preparation for learning at school. In addition to achieving a certain level of development of cognitive abilities, such training includes ensuring a sufficiently high level of upbringing of personal qualities, the ability to communicate and interact with people. In addition, attention should be paid to the educational activity formed in the child with all its main characteristics.
The readiness of a child of pre-preschool age to learn at school primarily determines his motivational readiness, which includes a sufficiently developed need for knowledge, skills and the child's expressed desire to improve them. The notion of motivational readiness, in addition, includes a sufficiently high level of development in the child of the need to achieve academic success, to communicate with people, the presence of adequate self-esteem and a moderately high level of claims. Without motivational readiness, there can be no question of any other readiness of the child for learning, since it is the source of the child's inner desire to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. It also defines performance as the main premise underlying all human developmental achievement.
The second factor of psychological readiness for learning can be called intellectual-cognitive. It assumes the development of the child's basic mental processes of perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking and speech in terms of arbitrariness, mediation, the ability to act both in external and internal plans. We have already talked about how to prepare a child's perception, memory, thinking, and speech for learning in the first two sections of this chapter. The means mentioned there are suitable for the development of attention and imagination. We only add that all cognitive processes in children should develop systematically and systematically, necessarily include both external, practical actions with objects, and internal, mental, associated with the use of symbolic functions and sign systems. The very activity of children should, as far as possible, be creative.
Another indicator of readiness is the development of the child's most practical activity with material objects, including those of its components that are found in school teaching and in teaching. In this regard, we will use a slightly modified scheme of readiness indicators proposed by N.G. Salmina compared to the author's version. This scheme includes two groups of features: functional and structural. The former relate to the process of cognitive activity, its practical functioning in a child, while the latter characterize the structure of activity.
Motivational-structural analysis of the formation of educational activity involves finding out:
- acceptance by the child of the educational task as a guide to action,
- saving the accepted task or slipping to another in the process of its implementation,
- maintaining or losing interest in the task in the course of its solution. Another moment of the motivational-structural analysis of the formation of educational activity is the clarification:
- the attitude of the child to the teacher, which can manifest itself in responding to the teacher's comments, in accepting or ignoring them, in relation to the student to the assistance provided to him by the teacher.
The functional signs of the formation of educational activity contain a characteristic of the executive part of the activity, as well as its control part.
The characteristic of the orienting part of the activity involves establishing the presence of the orientation itself (whether the child is able to analyze the given patterns of actions, evaluate the resulting product, correlate it with the given pattern). This includes asking:
- the nature of orientation (folded - deployed, chaotic - thoughtful, organized - unorganized),
- the size of the orientation step (small, operational or large, in whole blocks).
The characteristics of the performing part of the activity include:
- performance of activities by trial and error, without analyzing the result or with correlation of the result with the conditions of execution,
- the presence or absence of self-control activities,
- copying by the student of the actions of an adult or another student or independent performance of the activity.
The characteristic of the control part of the activity contains information about whether the child notices mistakes, corrects them or skips them without noticing.

Let us characterize those types of classes with preschoolers that best provide them with psychological preparation for learning and learning at school, according to the main parameters of educational activity that were described above. It has been noted that the main problem at the beginning of preschool education is their lack of motivational readiness for learning, which, in turn, is expressed in the absence of a sustained interest in learning. If by some means we manage to ensure the child's direct interest in learning, then it and development proceed normally. It is possible to overcome the difficulties of the motivational plan only by making learning an interesting activity for the child, i.e. conducting it in the form of special educational and didactic games, designed to captivate the child and to train him through the generation of interest in the acquired knowledge, skills and abilities.
The first requirement for educational and didactic games conducted with preschool children is that they develop cognitive interests. From this point of view, games that meet the following requirements are most useful for a child:
a) the ability to generate direct interest in children;
b) giving children the opportunity to show their abilities;
c) involving the child in competition with other people;
d) ensuring independence in the search for knowledge, in the formation of skills and abilities;
e) availability in the game for the child of sources of new knowledge, skills and abilities;
f) receiving well-deserved rewards for success, and not so much for winning the game itself, but for demonstrating new knowledge, skills and abilities in it.
When using ordinary, traditional competitive educational and didactic games with children, it is important to pay their attention to the last three of the listed points: (d), (e) and (f).
By the end of preschool childhood, adults and books should become accessible and relatively simple sources of obtaining new knowledge, skills and abilities for children.
An important role in ensuring the intellectual and cognitive readiness of the child to study at school is played by the nature of the toys with which he deals. It is necessary to provide preschoolers with as many different toys as possible, which they can freely dispose of. It is important for children to provide the opportunity and encourage them to independently explore the surrounding objects.
The most useful for a preschool child are such educational and didactic games and toys that he can make with his own hands, assemble or disassemble. There is no need to burden children, especially those of three or four years of age, with technically complex and expensive toys. Such toys usually arouse only temporary interest in children and are of little use in their intellectual development associated with preparation for schooling. Most of all, children need such games in which they discover new knowledge that helps to develop the imagination, memory, thinking and speech of the child, his various abilities, including design, musical, mathematical, linguistic, organizational and many others.

Topics and questions for discussion at seminars

Topic 1. Improving perception, memory and thinking
1. The concepts of sensory standards and perceptual actions.
2. Ways of developing perception in preschoolers.
3. The main directions of improving memory in preschoolers.
4. Development of arbitrary memorization.
5. Development of memorization tools and mediated memory.
6. Development of memory in the game.
7. Interconnected development of memory and thinking.
8. The main stages in the formation of thinking as an internal plan of action.
9. Techniques that facilitate the transition of the child from one stage of development of thinking to another.
Topic 2. Teaching speech, reading and writing
1. The main directions of speech development in preschool age.
2. Means of speech development of a preschool child.
3. Using children's word creation and egocentric speech to improve thinking.
4. Teaching reading and writing to preschoolers: the possibilities of this age.
5. Techniques for the development of reading.
6. Development of writing.
7. Ensuring effective learning motivation in teaching reading and writing.
8. Conditions for the successful learning of a foreign language by children at preschool age.
Topic 3. Preparation for learning at school
1. Three main factors of a child's readiness to learn at school: motivational-cognitive, intellectual and activity.
2. The structure of the preschooler's motivational readiness for learning.
3. Intellectual readiness for learning.
4. The main functional and structural signs of readiness for educational activities.
Topic 4. Developing educational and didactic games and forms of classes with preschool children
1. Educational games aimed at strengthening motivational readiness for learning.
2. Psychological and pedagogical requirements for group developmental games.
3. Requirements for individual educational and didactic games for preschoolers.

Topics for abstracts

1. Means of developing perception in preschoolers.
2. Means of memory development.
3. Techniques for the formation of thinking in preschool children.

Topics for independent research work

1. A system of tasks and special exercises aimed at developing voluntary and indirect memorization in preschool children.
2. Methods for the development of speech thinking in preschoolers.

Literature
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Wenger L.A. Pedagogy of abilities. - M., 1973. (Formation of abilities: С6-95.)
Education and training of children of the sixth year of life. - M., 1987. (Education of five-year-olds: 34-41.)
Istomina Z.M. Memory development: Educational and methodical manual. - M., 1978. (Development of voluntary and involuntary memorization in preschoolers: 26-61. Ways of forming logical memorization techniques in preschoolers: 87-118.)
Kravtsova E.E. Psychological problems of children's readiness for schooling. - M., 1991. (Modern interpretations of preparing children for school: 4-25.)
Kravtsov G.G., Kravtsova E.E. Six-year-old child: psychological readiness for school. - M., 1987. (Problems of teaching six-year-olds: 3-13. Readiness for school: 37-59.)
Proskura E.V. The development of cognitive abilities of preschoolers. - Kyiv, 1985. (Formation of sensory and mental actions in preschoolers: 21-38. Teaching preschoolers to solve cognitive problems: 38-73.)
Psychology of preschool children. Development of cognitive processes. Moscow, 1964 The Development of Thinking in Preschool Childhood: 183-246.)
Rutter M. Help for difficult children. - M., 1987. (Period from two to five years: 97-112.)
Yakobson S.G., Doronova T.N. Psychological principles of the formation of initial forms of educational activity among schoolchildren // Questions of Psychology. - 1988. - No. 3. - S. 30-35.
II
Amonashvili Sha. Go to school from the age of six. - M., 1986. (Psychological characteristics of six-year-old children: 13-19. Psychological readiness for school: 34-60. Teaching a foreign language. 131-149.)
Wenger L.A. Perception and learning (preschool age). - M., 1969. (Sensory education: 292-340.)
Wenger L.A. Mastering the mediated solution of cognitive tasks and the development of the child's cognitive abilities. Voprosy psikhologii. - 1983. - No. 2 - S. 43-50.
Diagnostics of educational activity and intellectual development of children. - M., 1981. (Psychological readiness for schooling: 104-130.)
Karandashev Yu.N. The development of ideas in children: a textbook. - Minsk, 1987. (Development of ideas in children at preschool age: 43-60.)
Kolominsky Ya.L., Panko E.A. Teacher about the psychology of children of six years of age. - M., 1988. (Psychological readiness for school: 5-21. Psychological features of the game of six-year-old children: 51-70. Features of the educational activity of six-year-old children: 70-83. Artistic activity of six-year-old children: 83-96. Personality of a six-year-old child: 97 -114 Individual differences at the age of six: 114-127 Cognitive sphere of the six-year-old child: 128-173 Teacher and six-year-old children: 173-183.)
Kravtsova E.E. Psychological problems of children's readiness for schooling. - M., 1991. (Communication of a child with an adult and psychological readiness for schooling: 25-89.)
Leontiev A.N. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes - M., 1983. - V. 1. (Psychological foundations of preschool play: 303-323.)
Lisina M.I., Silvestru A.I. Psychology of self-consciousness in preschoolers. - Chisinau, 1983. (Development of self-awareness in preschoolers: 29-59. Self-awareness of preschoolers and its correction: 60-95.)
Obukhova L.F. Jean Piaget's concept: pros and cons. - M., 1981. (Development of thinking in preschool age: 85-88.) Features of the mental development of children 6-7 years of age. - M., 1988. (Development of learning motives in children of 6-7 years of age: 36-45.)
Poddyakov N.N. Teaching preschool children combinatorial experimentation. Voprosy psikhologii. - 1991. - No. 4. - S. 29-34.
Poddyakov N.N. Thinking of a preschooler. - M., 1977. (Formation in preschoolers of generalized methods of practical study of the situation: 112-123. Formation of visual-figurative thinking in preschoolers: 162-237.)

Summary

The initial stage of learning. The successive appearance of the main

forms and signs of learning: imprinting, conditioned reflex learning,

operant learning vicarious learning, verbal learning. The role of the word

early stage of a child's learning.

Combination of different forms of learning. A combination of conditioned reflex and

vicarious, operant and vicarious, vicarious and verbal learning.

The need for such a combination for the accelerated development of abilities

Features of learning infancy. movement,

mental processes of perception and memory, visual-effective thinking

and speech hearing are the main areas of learning in infants.

The value of the physical development of the child and the improvement of his movements

for mental development. Methods of physical hardening. Development

baby movements from birth to one year. Stimulation of development

voluntary movements. Formation of the need for knowledge. Main

components of speech hearing and ways of its development in infants. Preparation

children to upright posture. Development of visual-effective thinking.

Learning at an early age. Creative tasks as a factor,

facilitating the transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative

thinking. Features of the child's entry into the sensitive period of development

speech. Stimulation of active speech through development and satisfaction

cognitive interests of the child. The role of communication with other people in

speech development of a young child. Optimal Organization

communication. The problem of delays in the development of active speech of the child. Meaning

non-verbal communication at the initial stages of formation of active speech.

The problem of early bilingualism. Optimal conditions for parallel assimilation

bilingual children in their first years of life. Ways to develop imagination and

speech thinking. Games and toys that help the development of children of two

three years of age. Possible consequences for the development of deprivation

sensory systems or increased sensory activity.

INITIAL STAGE OF LEARNING

A child's learning actually begins from the moment he is born. FROM

the very first days of life, learning mechanisms come into play, such as

imprinting and conditioned reflex learning. Motor and food

reflexes are found in the child immediately after his birth. At that time

in children, distinct conditioned reflex reactions to light and

learning: operant, vicarious and verbal (learning according to verbally given

samples or instructions). Thanks to the rapid progress of the operant and

vicarious learning baby and toddler with amazing

speed and amazing success improves motor skills,

skills and speech. As soon as he has an understanding of speech, there is also

verbal learning is rapidly improving.

By the end of infancy, we find in the child everything

five main types of learning, the combined action of which provides

further rapid progress in psychological and behavioral development,

especially noticeable at an early age. In the beginning, all kinds of learning

function as if independently of each other, and then they

gradual integration. Let us explain what has been said on the example of the four most

important forms of lifetime acquisition of experience by a person:

conditioned reflex, operant, vicarious and verbal.

Even I.P. Pavlov showed that a person has two signal

systems, thanks to which he learns to respond to initially

neutral, and then acquiring vital significance for him

impact. It is the ability to respond to physical and chemical stimuli

(sound, light, touch, vibration, smell, taste, etc.) and the word. One

the signaling system is named first, and the other second. Second signal

system for a person is certainly more important for acquiring vital

experience. In an adult, it not only becomes the main one, but

significantly transforms, making other forms more subtle and perfect

learning. Using the word, an adult can pay attention

the child to certain details of the situation, the features of the action being performed.

A word pronounced as the name of an object or phenomenon

becomes its conditional signal, and an additional combination of the word with

reaction in this case is usually not required (unless, of course, the person is already

speaks fairly well). Such is the role of the word in the conditioned reflex,

learning.

If learning is done by trial and error (operant

conditioning), here, too, the word makes the acquisition of new experience more

perfect. With the help of a word, it is possible to clearly distinguish in the mind of a child his

successes and failures, pay attention to something significant, in particular to

something for which he receives encouragement: for diligence, effort, or for

capabilities.

A word can direct the child's attention, control it.

activity. Without verbal accompaniment and instructions cannot become

effective neither vicarious nor verbal learning (the latter without

words are (by definition) simply impossible).

In a child up to one and a half to two years of age, all types of learning

exist, as it were, separately and independently of speech, and speech itself is used

them almost exclusively as a means of communication. Only when talking

begins to be used by the child as a means of thinking, it becomes and

the most important learning tool.

COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEARNING

An important task of learning at its initial stage in the earliest years

consists in a combination of different forms of learning in children: conditioned reflex with

operant, vicarious with verbal, vicarious with operant. Such

the combination is necessary because with different types of learning in action

various analyzers enter and develop, and the experience gained

with the help of different sense organs, as a rule, is the most

versatile and rich. Recall, for example, that correct perception

space is provided by the joint action of visual, auditory,

proprioceptive and skin analyzers.

Parallel work of different analyzers helps the development of the child

abilities. Every human ability is a combination

and joint, coordinated work of many mental functions, each

of which develops and improves in various activities and

learning. Conditioned Reflex Learning has a positive effect on

the ability of the senses to discriminate between physical stimuli (differential

sensory ability).

operant learning

allows active

improve movement. vicarious learning improves observation and

verbal develops thinking and speech. If in teaching a child we

use all four types of learning, then at the same time he will have

develop perception, motor skills, thinking and speech. That's why from early

childhood, when starting to teach children, it is necessary to strive for a combination

different types of learning.

FEATURES OF LEARNING IN INFANTS

The main areas of learning for children in infancy are

movements, mental processes: perception and memory, speech hearing and

visual action thinking. Development motor activity child

necessary to expand the possibilities of its independent

movement in space, for the study and knowledge of the environment

world, as well as for mastering objective actions. Without acquisition

corresponding processes of human properties, it is impossible to further

the development of the child's own human abilities.

If from the very first days of life it was possible to start an active

educational and educational work with the child, aimed at the development of his

cognitive processes and speech, then this should be done by starting

teaching a child immediately after birth. However, we know that in the first

days of its existence, the human infant is one of the most

helpless beings in the world and, above all, requires physical care.

Therefore, his physical education must be taken care of first.

keep it like this for a long time. The arms and legs of the child must be

the ability to move freely from two to three weeks of age. From movements

baby in the first days and months of life may depend on the development in the future of his

motor abilities, skills and abilities.

Until the kid gets on his own feet and learns

move independently, with him from the age of one and a half months

it is necessary to carry out special physical exercises regularly. AT

1.5 to 3 months old, this can be a light, stroking massage

arms, legs, back and abdomen of the child. Tpex to four months recommended

apply rubbing warm-up of the same parts of the body, free

passive movement of the arms and legs of the child, their flexion and extension with the hands

adult.

From four to six months, an adult should already carefully

observe the child's own attempts to perform independently

a variety of purposeful movements and stimulate them in every possible way.

Such movements that require support may be reaching and

grasping objects, turning from side to side, trying to take

sitting position, independently stand on all fours, on your knees, on your feet and

take the first steps. An exemplary set of physical exercises for

infant 6-7 months of age should include mainly the provision of

help the child in movements performed by him on his own initiative. AT

9-12 months is especially important to stimulate the child's own efforts

get up and walk.

wakefulness, 20-30 minutes before feeding or 30-40 minutes after

it in the morning, afternoon and evening, but no later than 3-4 hours before a night's sleep.

Physical activities with the child should be carried out on a smooth, hard surface.

surface covered with a soft clean rug or flannelette blanket with

diaper or sheet upstairs. The adult's hands must be dry.

and clean.

It is desirable that physical activities with children are constantly carried out

the same person, not necessarily the mother. Better even if it will do

father while mother is busy doing other things. During

classes, it is necessary to keep the child in a good mood and affectionately

talk to him.

With age, as movements improve and develop, it is necessary

stimulate the activity of the child, aimed at independent reception

food, dressing and undressing. For hardening and physical development of the child

useful bathing and swimming with the help of an adult or in special

swimwear that supports the baby on the surface

A child, starting from two to three months, should not only be in

surrounded by bright, colorful, beautiful and attractive toys,

emitting various and pleasant sounds, but also being able to

touch them, pick them up, move, turn, generate certain

visual and auditory effects. All manipulative actions of the child with

objects should not be hindered, since with the help of these actions

the baby is actively learning about the world around him. Here begins the formation

voluntary movements and cognitive interests. Maintenance and

fixing them at this age in the future can lead to the formation

important for a modern civilized person, the need for

acquiring new knowledge.

In the second half of life, children begin to reproduce and repeat

adult movements. Thus, they demonstrate readiness for vicarious

learning with repeated exercises. This circumstance

is of fundamental importance for the further general development of the child, in

particular for the formation of his speech. Influenced by the speech of adults in a child

first develops a special speech hearing. It includes a number

successively formed elementary and more complex abilities:

phonemic hearing (familiarization with the sounds of speech that make up

words); rules for combining phonemes into syllables and words (learning

phonological rules); the ability to highlight in the speech stream the main

significant units of language (morphemic hearing); learning their rules

combination (syntax).

In order for the infant's speech hearing to take shape as soon as possible,

it is necessary, starting from two months, to talk as much as possible with

child while feeding and performing other tasks to care for him.

At the same time, the child should clearly see the face and hands of the person pronouncing

words, because through facial expressions and gestures they convey information that

simultaneously denoted by words.

The words uttered by an adult, the infant connects with the fact that he himself

feels, sees and hears. This is how it goes primary learning complex

perception of speech, the ability to distinguish between its elements and

understanding.

Along with the assimilation of words denoting objects, it is necessary

make sure that the child learns to understand the words related to

actions and attributes of objects. They should be used in

communicating with a child from about 8-9 months of age, when he is already

learned to independently perform elementary voluntary movements,

associated, for example, with changing posture, grasping, moving

objects, turning your own body, moving its parts:

arms, legs, head. Particular attention during the formation of the child's speech

attention should be paid to the development of hand movements. In the vocabulary of an adult,

communicating with the baby, there should be enough words denoting

similar movements. These are words like “give”, “take”, “lift”,

“drop”, “bring”, “take”, etc. Success in mastering and understanding speech

increases significantly if, along with actual verbal communication with

adults and during it the child has the opportunity to actively manipulate

objects called adults, independently explore them,

study carefully.

The main thing that a child should acquire by the end of infancy

age is bipedalism and a variety of hand movements. AT

in natural conditions, this occurs to one degree or another in all children, but

with certain individual differences, sometimes reaching

two to three months time. With certain actions, you can

accelerate the motor development of children. Such actions should be based on

natural inner urges of the child to commit certain

movements.

Almost from the first days of life, a baby has a special support

motor reflex, which consists in the fact that when touched with a palm

to the lower surface of the foot, the child automatically unbends, straightens

legs. This reflex can be used to actively

develop his muscles gradually preparing the child to stand on

To develop the movements of the arms and legs of the child and its accelerated preparation for

Upright walking is very important coordination of hand and foot movements.

It is important that the child, while awake, can simultaneously

touch surrounding objects with your feet, leaning on them, grab with your hands,

first lying down, and behind. while sitting and moving on the surface. This will prepare

the coordinated movements of his arms and legs and the corresponding muscle groups.

Approximately by the beginning of the second half of life, perception and memory

child, his motor activity reaches such a level of development that he

turns out to be quite capable of solving in a visual-effective plan

elementary tasks. From now on, it's time to take care of the development

the child has visual-effective thinking. Before the baby now

it is necessary to more often set various kinds of tasks for visual and motor

looking for familiar and attractive items. For example, in front of a child

you can hide the toy, divert his attention for a few seconds and then

ask to find a hidden thing. Such questions and games with children not only

well develop memory, but have a beneficial effect on thinking.

EARLY LEARNING

During early childhood, the child's intellect improves,

there is a transition from visual-active to visual-figurative

thinking. Practical actions with material objects gradually

are replaced by actions with images of these objects. The child makes another

and a very important step on the path of his intellectual development. For that

age, it is necessary to give tasks for the imagination as much as possible.

Their independence and striving for

artistic and technical design, creativity, in particular

Painting. Communication with adults, joint creative games with them

act as the main conditions for the development of the child's ability.

The beginning of an early age is the entry into sensitive period

speech development. Between the ages of one and three years, the child is most

receptive to speech acquisition. Here the formation of those

prerequisites for mastering human speech, which arose in

infancy, - speech hearing, the ability to understand speech,

including the language of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. passive perception and

response to the speech of an adult, to whom the child is almost already

prepared for late infancy, early childhood

replaced by active language acquisition.

At the heart of the development of a child's speech in the initial period of its active

use lies operant and vicarious learning, outwardly acting as

imitation of adult speech. In the second year of a child's life, the

interest in the environment. Children all want to know, touch, hold in

their hands. At this age, they are especially interested in the names of new

objects and phenomena the names of the people around them, they expect from adults

relevant explanations. Having mastered the first words, children often ask

for adults, the questions “what is this?”, “who is this?”, “what is it called?”. Such

questions should not be left unattended, it is necessary to always answer them as

as best as possible to satisfy the child's natural curiosity and

contribute to his cognitive development.

Incorrect, too fast and slurred speech of adults prevents

speech development of children. Talk to your child slowly

clearly pronouncing and repeating all words and expressions. Attentively

observing the actions of adults, the child by the end of the first year of life already

reacts animatedly to his facial expressions, gestures and pantomime. According to them he

captures the meaning of those words that are pronounced by adults. Therefore,

talking with young children, especially at the beginning of the assimilation of active

speech, it is necessary to widely use the language of facial expressions and gestures in communication.

To their parents, brothers and sisters, children in the process of speech development

imitate more than other people. The more often, communicating with the child, his

next of kin talk to him, the faster the child himself

learns speech. Support and approval of one's own speech activity

child from the surrounding people play an important role in the development of his

speech. It is best to teach and practically assess the level of speech

development achieved by the child, can the mother. If the same words

she says, then the child understands them better and reacts more intelligently to them,

than similar statements by other people.

Parents who monitor children's speech development sometimes

there is concern about delays in the start of their active speech. If

until about two years old, the child speaks little, but understands the converts well

the words of an adult to him, then there are no serious reasons for worrying about

about his speech development should not be. Children who have spoken before

small, between two and three years often reveal a significant and

a rapid increase in their own speech activity, catching up with their peers.

In the nature and pace of assimilation by the child of active speech, there are significant

normal individual differences that should not cause

anxiety.

At about three years of age, the child begins to attentively and with obvious

interest in listening to what adults are talking about among themselves. Them

in this regard, speech should be varied, become such as to be

understandable to the child.

Another important point related to the speech development of the child

early age is the opportunity for children to simultaneously learn two

languages: native and non-native. It can be assumed that the most

a favorable period of time to start a parallel study of two

languages ​​is just an early preschool age. However, both languages ​​are here

should be taught using the same methods. It is important that on

different languages ​​consecutively, without passing from one language to another, with

As a child, certain people constantly spoke in different situations. In that

case will not occur or will be fairly soon and successfully overcome the phenomenon

language interference.

We have already noted that young children are characterized by

heightened curiosity. Her support leads to rapid

intellectual development of the child, to the acquisition of the necessary

knowledge, skills and abilities, and the mental development of children of this age

carried out in different types of activities: in games, in the classroom with

adults, in communication with peers, in the process of careful observation

for what surrounds the child. Of particular importance for development

child's curiosity have toys. Among those toys that

are at the disposal of children, there should be many of them, with the help of

which children, imitating adults, could join the world of human

relations. There should be plenty of dolls depicting people and

animals, cubes from which you can create various designs,

household items, furniture, kitchen utensils, garden tools

(all in a toy version), a variety of tools for making

simple crafts.

Having tools in the hands of a young child is especially important

to improve his intellect, creative imagination and to

ability development. Child with the help available to him

tools must first learn to put in order,

repair your own toys. If the toy is accidentally broken, then it

should not be thrown away, even if parents are able to buy a new one. Better

ask the kid and help him fix the toy. Of course, at this age

Children are unlikely to be able to do this on their own. However, something else is important:

at an early age to teach children to be careful, diligent and thrifty.

Associated with the education and upbringing of children of early preschool age

another important question: how sustainable for the Further

psychological and behavioral development of the child may be the consequences

early sensory-motor deprivation, i.e. depriving a child of essential

incentives for his psychophysical development. When it comes to pure

motor skills, i.e. about some lack of opportunities for

free movement in space, then delays in this regard,

observed at an early age, over time, as a rule, are overcome without

any serious consequences. In other areas of development such

such as speech, emotions, intellectual ability consequences

early sensory deprivation may be more severe and

sustainable. Children whose capabilities in relation to these mental functions

were significantly limited from birth to two or three years of age,

i.e. those with whom adults had little contact in early preschool childhood,

who, for example, were not read books, were not encouraged to actively

to explore the world around them, who did not have the opportunity to play, these children are like

as a rule, noticeably lag behind their peers in psychological development.

So-called pedagogically neglected children often grow out of them.

Topics and questions for discussion at seminars

Summary

The initial stage of learning. Consistent appearance of the main forms and signs of learning: imprinting, conditioned reflex learning, operant learning, vicarious learning, verbal learning. The role of the word at the initial stage of the child's learning.

Combination of different forms of learning. A combination of conditioned reflex and vicarious, operant and vicarious, vicarious and verbal learning. The need for such a combination for the accelerated development of the child's abilities.

Features of learning infancy. Movements, mental processes of perception and memory, visual-effective thinking and speech hearing are the main areas of learning in infants. The value of the physical development of the child and the improvement of his movements for mental development. Methods of physical hardening. The development of infant movements from birth to one year. Stimulation of the development of voluntary movements. Formation of the need for knowledge. The main components of speech hearing and how it develops in infants. Preparing children for walking upright. Development of visual-effective thinking.

Learning at an early age. Creative tasks as a factor contributing to the transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking. Features of the child's entry into the sensitive period of speech development. Stimulation of active speech through the development and satisfaction of the cognitive interests of the child. The role of communication with other people in the speech development of a young child. Optimal organization of communication. The problem of delays in the development of active speech of the child. The value of non-verbal communication at the initial stages of the formation of active speech. The problem of early bilingualism. Optimal conditions for the parallel acquisition of two languages ​​by children in the first years of life. Ways of development of imagination and speech thinking. Games and toys that help the development of children of two to three years of age. Possible consequences for the development of deprivation of sensory systems or increased sensory activity.

INITIAL STAGE OF LEARNING

A child's learning actually begins from the moment he is born. From the very first days of life, learning mechanisms such as imprinting and conditioned reflex learning come into play. Motor and food reflexes are detected in a child immediately after birth. At this time, distinct conditioned reflex reactions to light and some other stimuli are established in children. Then the following forms of learning appear: operant, vicarious and verbal (learning according to verbally given patterns or instructions). Thanks to the rapid progress of operant and vicarious learning, the child of infancy and early age improves motor skills, skills and speech with amazing speed and amazing success. As soon as an understanding of speech is found in him, verbal learning arises and is rapidly improved.

By the end of infancy, we already find in the child all five basic types of learning, the combined action of which ensures further rapid progress in psychological and behavioral development, especially noticeable at an early age. At first, all types of learning function as if independently of each other, and then their gradual integration occurs. Let us explain what has been said on the example of the four most important forms of lifetime acquisition of experience by a person: conditioned reflex, operant, vicarious and verbal.

I. P. Pavlov also showed that a person has two signaling systems, thanks to which he learns to respond to initially neutral, and then acquiring vital significance for him influences. This is the ability to respond to physical and chemical stimuli (sound, light, touch, vibration, smell, taste, etc.) and to the word. One signaling system is named first, and the other second. The second signaling system for a person is certainly more important for acquiring life experience. In an adult, it not only becomes the main one, but significantly transforms, making other forms of learning more subtle and perfect. Using the word, an adult can draw the child's attention to certain details of the situation, the features of the action being performed. A word pronounced as the name of a particular object or phenomenon becomes its conditional signal, and in this case an additional combination of a word with a reaction is usually not required (unless, of course, the person already speaks well enough). Such is the role of the word in conditioned reflex learning.

If learning is done by trial and error (operant conditioning), then here, too, the word makes the acquisition of new experience more perfect. With the help of a word, it is possible to clearly distinguish in the mind of the child his successes and failures, to pay attention to something significant, in particular to what he receives encouragement for: for diligence, efforts made or for abilities.

The word can direct the attention of the child, manage his activities. Without verbal accompaniment and instructions, neither vicarious nor even verbal learning can become effective (the latter without a word (by definition) is simply impossible).

In a child up to the age of one and a half to two years, all types of learning exist, as it were, separately and independently of speech, and speech itself is used by him almost exclusively as a means of communication. Only when speech begins to be used by the child as a means of thinking does it become the most important instrument of learning.

COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEARNING

An important task of learning at its initial stage in the earliest years is to combine different forms of learning in children: conditioned reflex with operant, vicarious with verbal, vicarious with operant. Such a combination is necessary because with different types of learning, different analyzers come into action and develop, and the experience gained with the help of different sense organs, as a rule, is the most versatile and rich. Recall, for example, that the correct perception of space is provided by the joint action of the visual, auditory, proprioceptive and skin analyzers.

The parallel work of different analyzers helps the development of the child's abilities. Any human ability is a combination and joint, coordinated work of many mental functions, each of which develops and improves in various types of activity and learning. Conditioned Reflex Learning positively affects the ability of the senses to distinguish between physical stimuli (differential sensory ability). operant learning allows you to actively improve movements. vicarious learning improves observation, and verbal develops thinking and speech. If we use all four types of learning in teaching a child, then at the same time he will develop perception, motor skills, thinking and speech. That is why from early childhood, when starting to teach children, it is necessary to strive for a combination of different types of learning.

The initial stage of learning. Consistent appearance of the main forms and centers of learning: imprinting, conditioned reflex learning, operant cd vicarious learning, verbal learning. The role of the word at the initial stage of the child's SC. 1
Combination of different forms of learning. A combination of conditioned reflex to "Dnogo, operant and vicarious, vicarious and verbal learning. Such a combination is necessary for the accelerated development of the child's abilities. .
Features of learning infancy. Movements, psch processes of perception and memory, visual-effective thinking and speech are the main areas of learning in infants. The importance of the physical) development of the child and the improvement of his movements for the mental (Techniques of physical hardening. Development of the movements of the infant from the birth year. Stimulation of the development of voluntary movements. Formation of the need for knowledge. The main components of speech hearing and its methods in infants. Preparing children for upright posture. Development visual-dey) thinking. :!
Learning at an early age. Creative tasks as a factor, a way of transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking. The entry of the child into the sensitive period of speech development. Stimulation: speech through the development and satisfaction of the cognitive interests of the child to communicate with other people in the speech development of an early child Optimal organization of communication. The problem of delays in the development of the act "of the child. The significance of non-verbal communication at the initial stages of the initial stage of learning
A child's learning actually begins from the moment of birth. From the very first days of life, the mechanisms of learning come into play, such as imprinting and conditioned reflex learning and food reflexes are found in the child. after his birth. At this time, conditioned reflex reactions to light and to some others are established in children. By the end of infancy, we find early development in p1, especially noticeable at an early age. Gradual integration Let's explain what has been said on the example of the four most important forms of lifetime acquisition of experience by a person: conditioned reflex, operant, icarial and verbal.
I. P. Pavlov also showed that a person has two signal "systems, thanks to which he learns to respond to initially neutral, and then acquiring vital 1 significance for him, influences. This is the ability to respond to physical [chemical stimuli (sound , light, touch, vibration, smell, bite, etc.) and a word. One signal system is named first, 1 and the other second. The second signal system for a person is certainly more important for acquiring life experience. In an adult, it is not just becomes the main, but significantly pre-forms, making other forms of learning more subtle and perfect.Using the word, an adult can draw the attention of the child to certain details of the situation, the features of the action being performed.A word pronounced as the name of one or another object or phenomenon becomes its conditional signal, and in this case an additional combination of a word with a reaction is usually not required (unless, of course, a person is already has a good command of; speech). Such is the role of the word in conditioned reflex learning. "" If learning is carried out by the method of trial and error (operant-"conditioning), then here the word makes the acquisition of new experience more perfect. With the help of the word, it is possible to more clearly highlight his successes and failures in the child's inquiry, pay attention to something essential, in particular, for what he receives encouragement: for diligence, effort, or ability.

The word can direct the attention of the child, manage his activities. Without verbal accompaniment and instructions, neither vicarious nor, even more so, verbal learning can become effective (the latter without a word (by definition) is simply impossible). In a child up to the age of one and a half to two years, all types of learning exist, as it were, separately and independently of speech, and speech itself is used by him almost exclusively as a means of communication. Only when speech begins to be used by the child as a means of thinking does it also become the most important instrument of learning.

COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEARNING
An important task of learning at its initial stage in the earliest stages is to combine different forms of learning in children: conditionally flexural with operant, vicarious with verbal, vicarious perant. Such a combination is necessary because, with different types of learning, different analyzers come into play and develop, and the experience gained with the help of different senses is, as a rule, the most versatile and rich.
tym. Recall, for example, that the correct perception of spaces is ensured by the combined action of visual, auditory, prioceptive and skin analyzers.
Parallel operation of different analyzers helps pa; the child's abilities. Any human ability is a combination and joint, coordinated work of many mental functions, each of which develops and develops verbal thinking and speech. If we use all four types of learning in teaching, then at the same time perception will develop , motor skills, thinking and speech.Here) from early childhood, when starting to teach children, it is necessary to combine different types of learning.
FEATURES OF LEARNING IN INFANTS
The main areas of learning for children in the infantile vogue are movements, mental processes: perception and memory, hearing and visual-active thinking. The development of the child's motor activity is necessary to expand the possible independent movement in space, to explore and cognize the world around, as well as to master the necessary actions. Without the acquisition by appropriate processes of eternal properties, the further development of the child's human abilities is impossible.
If from the very first days of life it was possible to begin educational and upbringing work with the child, aimed at developing his cognitive processes and speech, then this should be given, having started teaching the child immediately after his birth, we know that in the first days of his existence 4 The baby is one of the most helpless creatures and requires physical care first of all. The poet * physical education must be taken care of first of all, it is recommended, for example, to swaddle the child too much to keep him in this state. The arms and legs of the baby share the ability to move freely from two to three weeks. From the movements of the baby in the first days and months of life, the development of his motor abilities and skills in the future can be.
As long as the baby does not stand on its own feet and move independently, it is necessary to regularly carry out special exercises with it, starting from a half-baked age. At the age of 1.5 to 3 months, this is MO
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1 light, stroking massage of the arms, legs, back and abdomen of the child. For three to four months, it is recommended to use rubbing 1 warm-up of the same parts of the body, free passive movement of the child's arms and legs, their flexion and extension with the hands of an adult. 1 From four to six months, an adult should already carefully observe the child's own attempts to independently perform various purposeful movements and stimulate them in every possible way. , side-to-side over-1, attempts to take a sitting position, Stand on all fours, kneel, stand on your own and take 1 step. - 1 learning to help the child in the movements performed by him on his own initiative. At 9-12 months, it is especially important to stimulate 1 the child's own effort to get up and walk. 1 All physical exercises are recommended to be done daily 1 during waking hours, 20-30 minutes before feeding or 130-40 minutes after it in the morning, afternoon and evening, but no later than 13-4 hours before bedtime. Walk on a smooth, hard surface covered with a soft, clean rug or flannelette blanket with a diaper or sheet 1 on top. The hands of an adult should be dry and clean. 1 It is desirable that physical activities with children are constantly carried out by the same person, not necessarily the mother. It is even better if the father does this while the mother is busy with some other business. During classes, it is necessary to keep the child in a good mood and talk affectionately with him. 1 With age, with the improvement and development of movements at -140, stimulate the child's activity aimed at self-1 at this age in the future can lead to the formation of a need for new knowledge for a modern civilized person.
the second half of life, children begin to reproduce and. °Five movements of adults. Thus, they demonstrate readiness for vicarious learning with repeated independent exercises. This circumstance is of fundamental importance for the further general development of the child, in particular for the formation of his speech. Influenced by the speech of adults in a child at first! there is a special speech hearing. It includes a number of well-formed elementary and more complex sings: phonemic hearing (familiarization with the sounds of speech, words are composed of words); the rules for combining phonemes into syllables > ((learning phonological rules); the ability to distinguish in r In order for the infant's speech hearing to take shape as soon as possible, it is necessary, starting from two months, to speak with the child as much as possible during feeding and performing tasks for caring for him. At the same time, the child should see well "1 and the hands of the person pronouncing the words, since through the mimics they transmit information about what is simultaneously described with the help of words.
The words uttered by adults are connected by the infant with what he himself feels, sees and hears. This is how the primary understanding of the complex perception of speech occurs, it is formed by the ability to distinguish its elements and understand. "-,
Along with the assimilation of words denoting objects, it is necessary to take care that the child learns to understand words that refer to the actions and signs of objects. They should be used in communication with a child from about 8-9 months of age, grasping, moving objects, turning one's own body, moving its parts: arms, legs, head. During the period of formation of the child’s speech, it is necessary to pay attention to 1 twist of hand movements. In the vocabulary of an adult, common with a baby, there should be enough words denoting movements. These are words such as, etc. The success of mastering the mania of speech increases significantly if, along with and during his own communication with an adult, the child has the opportunity to actively manipulate objects called adults degrees of prev in all children, but with certain individual raaDN sometimes reaching two or three months in time. children. Such actions should be based on the child’s natural early impulses to commit certain DOIs. Almost from the first days of life, the infant will show
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th support motor reflex, which consists in the fact that when the child touches the lower surface of the foot with the palm of the hand, the child automatically unbends and straightens the legs. This reflex can be used to actively develop his dog muscles, gradually preparing the child to stand on them.
For the development of the movements of the arms and legs of the child and his accelerated preparation for upright posture, coordination of hand and knife movements is very important. It is important that the child, being in a state of wakefulness, can simultaneously touch the surrounding objects with his feet, leaning on them, grab with his hands, first lying down, and then sitting and moving along the surface. This will prepare the coordinated movements of his arms and legs and respective groups
kishi-Approximately by the beginning of the second half of the year of life, the child’s perception and pa-shyat, his motor activity reach such a level of development that he is quite capable of solving elementary tasks in a visual-effective plan. From this moment on, it is time to take care of the development of visual-effective thinking in the child. It is now necessary for the baby to more often set various kinds of tasks for the visual and motor search for familiar and attractive objects. For example, in front of a child, you can hide a toy, divert his attention for a few seconds and then ask him to find the hidden thing .. Such questions and games with children not only develop memory well, but have a beneficial effect; on thinking.
EARLY LEARNING
During early childhood, the intellect is improved; child, there is a transition from the visual-effective to the visual-? figurative thinking. Practical actions with Material) objects are gradually replaced by actions with images of these 1 objects. The child takes another and very important step on the path of his intellectual development. In order for this development to continue at an accelerated pace, young children need to be given as many tasks for the imagination as possible. Next-1 "especially encourage their independence and desire for artistic and technical design, creativity, in particular - 1 Drawing. Communication with adults, joint creative games with them act as the main conditions for the development of the child's ability.
! The beginning of an early age is the entry into the sensitive peri-1 ° "of the development of speech. At the age of one to three years, the child (more susceptible to the assimilation of speech. Here the formation of those prerequisites for mastering human speech, which 1" 1 and more in infancy, - speech hearing, capable of understanding speech, including the language of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime.1 Beer perception and response to the speech of an adult to whom
the child is practically already prepared for the end of infancy, which in early preschool childhood is replaced by active mastery of speech.)
The development of a child's speech in the initial period of its active use is based on operant and vicarious learning, beyond! acting as an imitation of the speech of adults. In the second year, the child's interest in the world around him sharply increases. Children> want to know, touch, hold in their hands. In this regard, they are especially interested in the names of new objects and eggs, the names of the people around them, they expect adults to provide explanations for this. Having mastered the first words, children often ask questions, questions cannot be ignored, it is always necessary to answer them as fully as possible in order to satisfy the natural curiosity of the child and contribute to his cognitive development.
Incorrect, too fast and slurred speech by adults hinders the speech development of children. With a child, it is necessary to speak slowly, clearly pronouncing and repeating all words and expressions. Carefully observing the actions of adults, the child (k) of the first year of life already reacts animatedly to his facial expressions, self and pantomime. According to them, he captures the meaning of those words that are pronounced by adults. Therefore, when talking with children of age, especially at the beginning of mastering active speech, it is necessary to widely use the language of facial expressions and gestures in communication.
In the process of speech development, children imitate their parents, brothers and sisters more than other people. The more often, about with the child, his closest relatives talk, the faster the child himself learns speech. Support and ode to the child's own speech activity from the environment of people play an important role in the development of his speech. It is better to speak and practically evaluate the level of speech development, before the child, the mother can. If the same words are spoken, then the child understands them better and reacts more intelligently to them than to similar statements of other people.
Parents who monitor speech development. sometimes there is concern about delays in the onset of speech. If a child up to about two years of age understands little the words of an adult addressed to him, then there should not be any serious reasons for worrying about his speech development. Children who have previously spoken small (at the age of two and three years) often show a significant rapid increase in their own speech activity, catching up with their peers. In the nature and pace of the child's assimilation of speech, there are significant, normal individual times that should not cause concern.
At the age of about three years, the child begins to listen attentively with obvious interest to what people say.
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1 tall. In this regard, their speech should be varied and such as to be understandable to the child. 1* Another important point related to the speech development of a young child is the possibility for children to simultaneously learn Two languages: native and non-native. It can be assumed, that
The most favorable period of time to start studying two languages ​​in parallel is precisely the early preschool age. However, both languages ​​should be taught here using the same methods. It is important that in different languages ​​consistently, without moving from one language to another, certain people constantly speak with the child in different situations. In this case (de will arise or will be quite soon and successfully overcome the phenomenon of non-linguistic interference.
We have already noted that breathing curiosity is characteristic of young children. Its support leads to the rapid intellectual development of the child, to the acquisition of the necessary 1 knowledge, skills and abilities, and the mental development of children of this age 1 is carried out in various activities: in games, in classes with adults, in communication with peers, in the process 1 careful observation of what surrounds the child. Toys are of particular importance for the development of a child's curiosity. 1 Among those toys that are at the disposal of children, there should be many such with the help of which children, imitating adults, could join the world of human relations. Here 1 there should be plenty of dolls depicting people and animals, cubes from which you can create various designs, household items, furniture, kitchen utensils, garden tools (all in a toy version), various tools 1 for making simple crafts.
1 Having tools in the hands of a young child is especially important for the development of his intellect, creative imagination and for the development of abilities. The child, with the help of the tools at his disposal, can tidy up and repair his own toys. If the toy is accidentally broken, then it should not be thrown away, even if the parents are able to buy a new one. It is better to ask ya-ysh and help him fix the toy. Of course, at this age 1 and is unlikely to be able to do it on their own. It is important, however, 1 Other: from an early age to accustom children to accuracy, hard work and thrift.
1 Another important question is related to the education and upbringing of children of early preschool age: how stable can the consequences of early sensory-motor deprivation, depriving the child of the necessary stimuli for his psychophysical development, be for the child’s most psychological and behavioral development? If we are talking about purely motor skills, i.e. 1 Which lack of opportunities for free movement in space, then the delays in this regard, observed in the early
age, over time, as a rule, are overcome without any serious consequences. In other areas, such as language, emotions, and the way we think, the consequences of early sensory deprivation can be severe and permanent. Children whose capabilities in relation to these mental functions were significantly limited in their rebirth to two or three years of life, i.e. those with whom adults had little contact during preschool childhood, who, on the other hand, did not read books, did not encourage them to in order to actively explore the surrounding world, who did not have the opportunity for games, these, as a rule, noticeably lag behind their peers in mental development. Of these, so-called gogically neglected children often grow up.
Topics and questions for discussion at seminars Topic 1. The initial stage of learning.
1. The first signs of learning in children "infancy.
2. The special importance of learning in the first year of a child's life.
3. The role of the word at the initial stage of learning.
Topic 2. Combination of different forms of learning
1. The need to combine different forms of learning "for the accelerated physical and behavioral development of the child.
2. The optimal combination of different types of learning.
Topic 3. Features of learning infancy
1. The main areas of learning in infants.
2. Improving motor activity and physical development during the first year of life.
3. Formation of prerequisites for active speech development.
4. Formation of visual-effective thinking.
Topic 4. Early learning
1. Factors contributing to the transition of the child from visual-action to visual-figurative thinking.
2. The beginning of a sensitive period in the development of active speech.
3. Ways to stimulate the speech activity of a child of one and a half years of age.
4. Organization of communication of a young child with others "
5. Development of imagination and speech thinking.
6. The developing value of children's games. Requirements for 1 child.
7. The problem of early bilingualism and its solution in the initial period of active speech.
Topics for abstracts
1. Features of learning children in infancy.
2. Learning at an early age.
Topics for independent research work
1. Means of accelerated mental and behavioral development
him age.
2. Ways and means of improving the speech and thinking of the child OC
rasta.
Literature
psychology of preschool children. Development of cognitive processes. M., 1964.
(sensory development at an early age (up to a year): 17-35.) raishburg J "Popper P. Secrets of personality.-M" 1983. development of motor activity at an early age: 29_41.) "ratter M. Help for difficult children. M. , 1987. (Infancy and first year of life: 82-90. Early life (second year of life): 91-97.)
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Karandashev Yu. N. The development of representations in children: a textbook.-Mi claim, 1987.
(Development of ideas in the first year of life: 14-24. Development of ideas in children at an early age: 24-43.)
Carlson L. et al. Child from 0 to 2 years. Development in interaction with other people. - M., 1983. (Understanding by adults and children of each other. Children's knowledge of the world around them. Self-knowledge. Mode of life and getting used to new conditions. Games of young children.) .-
Novoselova S. A. Development of thinking at an early age. M.
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