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Age features of the development of the emotional sphere of personality. Age features of the development of the emotional sphere in children of primary school age

1.2 Features of the emotional sphere of a preschooler

preschool anxiety adaptation crisis

The physical and speech development of the child is accompanied by changes in the emotional sphere. His views on the world and relationships with others are changing. The child's ability to recognize and control his emotions increases as an understanding of behavior, for example in areas where adult opinion about what is "bad" and "good" behavior is important. Adults need to have a good idea of what to expect from children, otherwise there will be incorrect assessments that do not take into account the age characteristics of the child. The ideal attitude of an adult to a child is a gradual adjustment to the emotional development and formation of the child's personality.

By the age of three, the emotional development of the child reaches such a level that he can behave in an exemplary manner. Just because children are capable of so-called "good" behavior does not mean that it will always be so. In children, manifestations of discontent in the form of tears, tantrums and screams are not uncommon. Although the older ones do not have tantrums as much as the younger ones, they have a strong sense of self and a desire for independence. If a four-year-old child in an argument argues with the help of speech, he does not need to fall into hysterics. But if the adult does not answer the child's question: "Why should I?" - then a breakdown can occur. If a four-year-old child is very tired or has had a stressful day, his behavior is more likely to resemble that of a younger child. This is a signal to an adult that at the moment too much has piled on the child for him to endure. He needs affection, comfort and the opportunity to act as if he were younger for a while.

The feelings of a preschooler are involuntary. They quickly flare up, are pronounced brightly and quickly go out. Rough fun is often replaced by tears.

The whole life of a child of early and preschool age is subject to his feelings. He still cannot control his feelings. Therefore, children are much more prone to mood swings than adults. It is easy to amuse them, but it is even easier to upset or offend, since they almost do not know themselves at all and do not know how to control themselves. That is why they are able to experience a whole gamut of feelings and excitement in an unusually short period of time. A child who rolls on the floor with laughter may suddenly burst into tears or despair, and a minute later, with eyes still wet, laugh again contagiously. This behavior of children is completely normal.

In addition, they have good and bad days. A child can be calm and thoughtful today or capricious and whimpering, and the next day - lively and cheerful. Sometimes we can explain his bad mood by fatigue, grief in kindergarten, malaise, jealousy of his younger brother, etc. In other words, his long-term bad mood is caused by anxiety due to some particular circumstance, and although we try our best to help the child get rid of it, it often happens that the feelings of the baby cause complete bewilderment. If the bad mood does not drag on for a long time - for example, for several days - and does not cross any boundaries, there is no need to worry. But if the child is in a depressed mood for a very long time or abrupt and unexpected changes occur, a psychologist's consultation is needed. But in most cases, it's best not to place too much importance on the child's mood swings, which will allow him to find emotional stability on his own.

With the development of the emotional sphere of the preschooler, the separation of the subjective attitude from the object of experiences gradually occurs. The development of emotions, feelings of the child is associated with certain social situations. Violation of the usual situation (change of regimen, lifestyle of the child) can lead to the appearance of affective reactions, as well as fear. Dissatisfaction (suppression) of new needs in a child during a crisis period can cause a state of frustration. Frustration manifests itself as aggression (anger, rage, the desire to attack the enemy) or depression (passive state).

The development of emotions and feelings in preschoolers depends on a number of conditions.

1. Emotions and feelings are formed in the process of communication of the child by peers. Separate aspects of the psyche of children at different age stages are not equally sensitive to the conditions of education. The younger the child and the greater his helplessness, the more significant is his dependence on the conditions in which he is brought up. With insufficient emotional contacts, there may be a delay in emotional development, which can persist for a lifetime. The teacher should strive to establish close emotional contacts with each child. Relationships with other people, their actions are the most important source of preschooler's feelings: joy, tenderness, sympathy, anger, anxiety and other experiences. The feelings that arise in a child in relation to other people are easily transferred to the characters of fiction - fairy tales, stories. Experiences can also arise in relation to animals, toys, plants. The child sympathizes, for example, with a broken flower.

Improper communication in the family can lead to:

To one-sided attachment, more often to the mother. At the same time, the need to communicate with peers weakens;

To jealousy when a second child appears in the family, if the first child feels left out;

To fear when adults express despair at the slightest pretext threatening the child. And in an unusual situation, excitement can arise. Fear can be instilled in the child. For example, the fear of the dark. If a child is afraid of the dark, then the darkness itself will frighten him.

2. With specially organized activities (for example, music lessons), children learn to experience certain feelings associated with perception (for example, music).

3. Emotions and feelings develop very intensively in the type of activity appropriate for the age of preschoolers - in a game saturated with experiences.

4. In the process of performing joint labor activities (cleaning the site, a group of rooms), the emotional unity of a group of preschoolers develops.

Depending on the current situation, any qualitatively diverse feelings and emotions (love, hate, joy, anger, anxiety) can be positive, negative, indicative.

In general, in general, children are optimistic about life situations. They have a cheerful, cheerful mood. Usually, the emotions and feelings of preschoolers are accompanied by expressive movements: facial expressions, pantomime, voice reactions. Expressive movements are one of the means of communication. The development of emotions and feelings is associated with the development of other mental processes and, to the greatest extent, with speech.

You should constantly pay special attention to the condition of children, their mood. You can ask, for example, if they had anything fun, funny, who was happy about something today, who was upset by something, and who was crying and why. If the children do not know what to answer, you need to help - recall some funny episode or a children's quarrel, ask why it arose, whether the children forgave each other. When such conversations become habitual, the children themselves will put aside different episodes in their memory and willingly talk about them. And, therefore, the anxiety of children will be low.

Conclusions on the first chapter

In this chapter, we examined theoretical issues related to the causes of anxiety, types of anxiety, its manifestation in preschoolers, and how it affects personality formation.

Anxiety - a person's tendency to frequent and intense experiences of a state of anxiety.

A theoretical analysis of the literature has shown that anxiety arises at a very early age, almost from infancy. By the age of seven or eight, this emotional state becomes a personality trait. Consolidation and intensification of anxiety then leads to the accumulation and deepening of negative emotional experience, which in turn gives rise to negative prognostic estimates. A high level of anxiety poses a threat to the mental health of an individual.

Chapter 2

Child, traumatic life experience) anxiety develops into anxiety ... thereby turning into stable character traits. But this does not happen before the senior preschool age. “Closer to 7 and especially to 8 years... we can already talk about the development of anxiety as a personality trait, as a certain emotional mood with a predominance of feelings of anxiety and fear of doing something wrong, not...

The normal development of the child interferes with the development of creative abilities. A large number of remarks, shouts, jerks can cause not only aggression in the child, but also anxiety. TRAINING FOR CORRECTION OF PERSONAL ANXIETY FOR JUNIOR SCHOOL AGE The size of the group is 5-6 couples (10-12 people). The duration of each meeting is 2 hours. Classes are held once or twice a week. ...

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INTRODUCTION

1. FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMOTIONAL SPHERE OF CHILDREN OF EARLY AGE

1.1.2 Theories of emotion

1.2.2 General trends in age-related changes in the emotional sphere of children

1.2.3 Features of the emotional development of young children

1.2.4 Age features of the emotional sphere of children 2-3 years old

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

Early childhood is a period of intensive physical and mental development. The qualitative transformations that a child undergoes in the first three years are so significant that many psychologists, thinking about where the middle of the path of human development from the moment of birth to adulthood, is attributed to three years.

Emotions play an important role in children's lives, helping them perceive reality and respond to it. Feelings dominate all aspects of a preschooler's life, giving them a special color and expressiveness, so the emotions that he experiences are easily read on his face, in posture, gestures, in all behavior.

The behavior of a child, the development of his emotional sphere is an important indicator in understanding the world of a small person and indicates his mental state, well-being, and possible development prospects.

The relevance of this work lies in the fact that insufficient attention is paid to the development of the emotional sphere of the child. But one of the most important problems today is that our children are not very emotional. L.S. Vygotsky wrote about the phenomenon of the "dried heart" ... when both the technologization and the progmatization of life in which the child participates contribute to the "desensitization" . This is true even today. Violations of psycho-emotional development, a delay in the formation of emotions in children leads to a lag in overall development, to persistently negative behavior and distorted development of feelings.

The consequence of all this is that it is difficult for children to establish relations with the surrounding society, and the process of their entry into a new reality becomes more complicated.

Currently, in our country there is an increase in interest in the problem of the position of the child in society. As A.I. Zakharov, "society is beginning to understand more and more that its foundations are laid in childhood and mental health is one of the most valuable acquisitions."

Early diagnosis of identifying the level of emotional development in a child and timely corrective work contributes to the fact that deviating development of a child from generally accepted norms can be corrected at an early stage.

CHAPTER 1. FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMOTIONAL SPHERE OF EARLY CHILDREN

1.1 General characteristics of emotions

1.1.1 The concept of emotion. Psychological mechanisms of the formation of emotions

When we watch the sunrise, read a book, listen to music, look for an answer to a question that has arisen, or dream about the future, then along with various forms of cognitive activity, we show our attitude to the cognitive world.

The book we read, the work we do, can make us happy or sad, cause pleasure or disappointment. Joy, sadness, fear, fear, delight, annoyance - this is a diverse range of feelings and emotions that arise in the process of cognition and human activity and affect its course.

Indeed, almost any event causes an emotional reaction in a person - an emotion or a feeling.

According to T.A. Danilina, V.Ya. Zedgenidze, N.M. Stepin, the world of feelings and emotions is complex and diverse. The richness of emotional experiences helps a person to understand what is happening more deeply, to penetrate more subtly into the experiences of other people, their interpersonal relationships, contributes to a person's knowledge of himself, his capabilities, abilities, advantages and disadvantages, the world of objects and phenomena surrounding him.

Emotions are the experiences of a person associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of her needs.

R.S. Nemov defined emotions and their classification.

“Under emotions,” noted R.S. Nemov, one can understand specific experiences, painted in pleasant or unpleasant tones and associated with the satisfaction of vital human needs ... ".

As noted by S.L. Rubinstein, “emotions can be tentatively characterized by several features: firstly, unlike perceptions that denote the content of an object, emotions express the state of the subject and his attitude to the object; secondly, emotions usually differ in polarity; in complex human feelings, they, interacting, form a complex contradictory unity (ambivalence of feelings); thirdly, emotions always have a character that captures the whole person, they are associated with the personal "I".

It is difficult to draw a line between emotions and feelings.

Usually, emotions are understood as more elementary experiences, and feelings are complex integral formations.

Emotions are associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of biological needs, and feelings are associated with the social needs of the individual.

According to the intensity, duration of the course, the degree of volitional regulation of emotions, they distinguish: mood, passions and affects.

Mood is an emotional state characterized by duration and stability, positive or negative experiences that act as a background for all other elements of mental activity (joy, melancholy).

Passion is an emotional state characterized by duration and persistence, which is the essence of a person's inner life at a certain stage.

Affect is an emotional state that is rapidly developing and short-lived, characterized by actions and deeds that are not amenable to volitional control (rage, despair, numbness).

For a long period, psychologists have been engaged in the description and classification of emotions. As if summing up this area of research, W. James (1901) wrote: “The variety of emotions is infinitely great. Anger, fear, love, hate, joy, sadness, shame, pride, and various shades of these emotions can be called the most gross forms of emotions, being closely associated with relatively strong bodily excitement. More refined emotions are moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings... The objects of emotions, the circumstances associated with them, and the various types of emotions can be described endlessly. The countless shades of each of them imperceptibly pass one into another and are partly noted in the language of synonyms, such as hatred, apathy, enmity, anger, dislike ... The result of many works is that purely descriptive literature on this issue, from Descartes to present day, is the most boring branch of psychology.

In a later period, a similar point of view was expressed by L.S. Vygotsky.

He noted: "... the path of definitions and classifications that psychology has done over several centuries has led to the fact that the psychology of feelings turned out to be the most fruitless and boring of all the chapters of this science."

A.N. Luk gives a list of 70 definitions of emotions and feelings, Kanner gives 365 English words associated with the designation of different emotional states.

This is not to say that such descriptions and definitions are useless. On the one hand, they indicate the significance of emotions and feelings in human life, because the most important concepts are fixed in the language. On the other hand, they led to the formulation of the problem of initial, basic emotions, from which the rest of the diversity of emotions and feelings is generated.

As basic emotions, B. Spinoza singled out three: pleasure, displeasure and desire. W. Wundt singled out three pairs of different opposites as the main forms of feelings: pleasure - displeasure, excitement - calm, tension - discharge. W. McDougall wrote that “there are two primary and fundamental forms of feeling - pleasure and pain, or satisfaction and dissatisfaction, which color and determine, to some, at least an insignificant degree, all the aspirations of the organism. Pleasure is a consequence of success, both complete and partial, suffering is a consequence and a sign of failure and frustration.

Considering the problem of the development of emotions, Watson argues that the child has three innate emotions: fear, anger and love.

K. Izard identifies as primary 10 fundamental emotions that form the main motivational system of human existence:

1) interest-excitement;

2) joy;

3) surprise;

4) grief-suffering;

6) disgust;

7) contempt;

Emotions are fundamental because "each of them has:

a) a specific internally determined nerve substrate;

b) characteristic mnemonic or neuromuscular complexes;

c) a different subjective experience or phenomenological quality.”

Let us consider the listed basic emotions, taking into account that characteristic motor reactions are attached to certain experiences. In any emotional reaction or state, there is necessarily a motor component.

Interest is a selective attitude of a person to an object due to its vital significance and emotional attractiveness. A person experiences this positive emotion more often than other emotions. In the first months of a child's life, interest is spontaneous and involuntary, and only later, deepening, can interest become a need.

The interests of people are characterized by a degree of constancy and strength. Sustained and strong interest encourages a person to be active in overcoming obstacles associated with activity.

The mimic expression of interest in visual perception is manifested in raised or slightly drawn together eyebrows, moving the gaze to the object, in a slightly open mouth or pursing of the lips. Each of these movements can occur alone or in combination.

Joy is a reaction to the unexpected receipt of something pleasant, desired.

Joy is little subject to conscious influence and cannot be the result of an effort of will.

The ability to feel joy is individual and partly genetically determined. Some people are born with a higher threshold for the emotion of joy, others vice versa.

With joy, the face blooms with a smile: the corners of the lips are pulled up, and wrinkles gather around the eyes. Children laugh with joy, jump, clap their hands, make various movements, without a goal, which are just a discharge of motor excitation.

The smile response is innate, so joy can be observed from infancy. Parents amuse the child by prompting a reaction of joy.

By inciting joy in a child, one can be sure that the emotion develops and the child's life is full of joyful experiences.

Surprise is a short-lived and very vague emotion. Surprise is generated by a sharp change in stimulation, and it is short-lived. Situations that cause surprise, then cause negatively or positively colored feelings. Usually such chains of emotions are built: surprise - joy - interest or surprise - shame - fear.

The facial expression in surprise develops as follows: the eyebrows are raised high, as a result of which wrinkles form on the forehead, and the eyes expand and round. The open mouth becomes oval.

The mouth and eyes open the wider, the greater the degree of surprise. Observations of the expression of surprise showed that this feeling is expressed in the same way. Any sudden emotion, including surprise, accelerates the activity of the heart and breathing.

It happens that Europeans express the emotion of surprise by clicking or clicking their tongue against the sky.

The surprised person often raises his open arms above his head, often with open palms facing the person who caused this feeling. Very often one can observe such a gesture: a hand is applied to the mouth or to another part of the head.

Distress manifests itself in sadness, suffering, grief.

The psychological basis of sadness is the problematic situations encountered in everyday life. The main cause of sadness is the feeling of loss that occurs in the event of death or separation from a close loved one.

The facial expressions of a sad person look like this: the inner ends of the eyebrows are raised and reduced to the bridge of the nose, the eyes are slightly narrowed, and the corners of the mouth are lowered. Mimic expression may be accompanied by crying or sobbing, but this depends on the age of the person and the intensity of sadness. A facial expression may last a few seconds, but the experience may last a long time.

Negative emotions can be observed already in the first months of a child's life. The child reports this by crying, a grimace of displeasure. Taking care of the child at such a moment, an adult helps to reduce crying. A child very early can empathize with the adults who care for him, and he is able to arbitrarily imitate a sad mood as early as 4 years old.

Disgust. The expression "disgust" in its first simplest sense refers to food and means something that tastes disgusting.

In infancy, the reaction of disgust occurs as a result of bitter, spoiled or bad-tasting and smelling food. As a person grows older, he learns to feel disgust for various objects of the world around him, and even from the age of 5, disgust for himself.

Facial expressions in disgust have the following appearance: furrowed eyebrows, wrinkled nose, raised upper lip and lowered lower lip, slightly sticking out the tongue.

With age, a person learns to control his facial expressions, this also applies to the reaction of disgust.

Anger is expressed in a person in the fact that the face turns red, the veins on the neck, on the forehead swell, sometimes the face becomes pale or blue. The mouth is tightly compressed, the teeth are clenched. Hair stand on end. Some people frown, others open their eyes wide. The muscles are tense and the person is ready for instant action.

Gestures in a state of anger are aimless, movements are uncoordinated, the voice breaks off. Small children scream, kick, roll on the floor, or bite anything they can get their hands on.

The highest degree of anger is rage. Cardiac activity is sharply increased or disturbed. The face turns red, turns purple or, conversely, turns pale. The voice is changing. There is trembling in the body. Gestures are in the nature of a fight or attack.

The meaning of anger is that it mobilizes the energy of a person, instills a sense of confidence, thereby increasing the ability to self-defense.

Contempt expresses itself well enough mimicry. Expressing contempt, a person becomes taller, he straightens up, throws his head back and looks at the object of his contempt as if from top to bottom. An ironic smile or grin appears on the face.

Contempt can be expressed aloud when there is sarcasm or a mocking tone in the voice.

The emotion of contempt is associated with a sense of superiority. Contempt can arise in interpersonal communication. Contempt underlies various prejudices such as racial, ethnic, religious, class-social.

Fear. The emotion of fear is experienced by people not so often, and this can be in different situations. But the common thing is that situations are perceived as a threat to security and peace.

Mimic manifestations of fear look like this: the eyebrows are raised and slightly reduced to the bridge of the nose, the eyes are wide open, the upper eyelid is raised, and the protein is exposed. The mouth is usually open. The muscles of the whole body tremble.

The feeling of fear affects the skin, on which the hair rises "on end" and sweat comes out. Due to a disorder in the activity of the heart, breathing quickens, the mouth dries up, and it opens and closes.

A strong sense of fear can develop into a mortal horror that leads to fainting or a scream of horror.

Shame is the most painful social emotion. Experiencing this feeling, a person lowers or turns his head away, hides his eyes. A bashful blush may appear on the face, which exacerbates the experience of shame, as it attracts the attention of other people to the face. Redness does not depend on the will of a person, but the desire to extinguish it increases the tendency to blush. Basically, the face, neck, ears turn red, but many people feel their whole body is on fire. Small children, frightened or ashamed, turn away or hide their face in their mother's dress.

The movements of the head and body demonstrate that a person strives to become less than he really is.

K. Marx wrote that "...shame is a kind of anger, only turned inward." This feeling arises in a situation of committing an immoral act, when a person knows that he will be judged by others.

Feelings of guilt, as well as other moral feelings, are characteristic only of a person, but for different people and peoples, the reasons for such a feeling are different and sometimes opposite.

The idea of what is shameful, first of all, depends on the moral position occupied by the person, as well as on the moral norms and principles in which the person was brought up.

Shyness and shyness are closely related to shame, and there is an opinion that these are manifestations of the same emotion. But only those children who have already formed a sense of shame are capable of noticing the bad behavior of their comrades and shaming them.

Having turned into a stable emotional state of a person, a sense of shame is able to restrain a child from actions and words condemned by others. Gradually consolidated, the feeling of shame becomes the basis for the formation of conscience.

Guilt. Guilt is condemnation of one's act and oneself. Guilt is characterized by remorse and low self-esteem. The main cause of guilt is misconduct, that is, a violation of an internal standard, an immoral act or betrayal. A person may feel guilty in those cases when he did not actually commit a misconduct, but could have acted differently.

The facial expressions accompanying guilt are not as expressive as with other negative emotions. The man lowers his head low, averts his eyes, glancing at the accuser, blushes. The person seems to want to appear smaller.

The study of emotions was carried out by A.D. Kosheleva, N.L. Kryazheva, E.I. Kulchitskaya et al. S. Fainberg [believes that the biological meaning of emotions is to increase the mental and physical forces of the human body, which serve to achieve the desired goal or, conversely, to prevent an undesirable event. The younger the child, the more place in his psychological life is occupied by emotions (understanding emotions as the totality of sensually colored experiences).

Emotions arise in a specific situation with a specific content and are accompanied by expressive movements. Emotions arise instantly and flow quite sharply, and then a specific decline is observed. At the moment of emotional stress, a person may develop such physical and moral strength that until that moment he could not have observed in himself.

Emotions can both activate actions and raise vitality, and, conversely, reduce it.

An inadequately arisen emotion overstrains the nervous-endocrine system, and as a result, an excess of adrenaline-like substances is created in the blood, but since there is no way to discharge in a purposeful action, such an emotion begins to interfere with mental and physical activity.

Kant divided emotions into sthenic and asthenic. Stenic emotions increase the vital activity of the body, performance and a surge of energy. Such emotions include joy, love, inspiration. A person experiences positive emotions when satisfying any desires.

Asthenic feelings arise in case of failures or difficulties, in conflicts with others. They have a depressing effect on the psyche and inhibit the activity of the individual.

The biological meaning of negative emotions is to mobilize the human body to activity and struggle. But, despite the fact that a person is able to control his behavior thanks to a developed will, negative emotions still affect the behavior and state of the body.

Thus, human emotions are both an enemy and a helper. And from birth to death, emotions accompany us everywhere, both in insignificant and in important events. It is very important for the normal development of the child to gradually train emotional experiences.

S.L. Rubinstein identified three levels of emotional experience.

The first is the level of organic affective-emotional sensibility (physical feelings of pleasure and displeasure). To the second level he refers objective feelings corresponding to objective perception and objective action. “At this second level,” noted S.L. Rubinshtein, - a feeling is nothing more than an expression in the conscious experience of a person's relationship to the world ... ".

It should be noted that the objectification of feelings finds its highest expression in the fact that the feelings themselves are differentiated depending on the objective sphere to which they relate. These feelings are divided into intellectual, aesthetic and moral (love or hatred for a certain person, indignation at an act, etc.).

At the third level, there are generalized feelings (irony, sublime, tragic), expressing the worldview attitudes of the individual.

In fact, in his classification, Rubinstein gives a picture of the development of emotions, laying in its main primary organic feelings of pleasure - displeasure.

Based on the analysis, we can conclude that emotions are associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the needs of the individual.

Before considering the development of the emotional sphere of children, it is necessary to dwell on those psychological mechanisms that underlie the formation of emotions.

In psychology, there are three ways in which a new emotion appears: emotional contagion, emotional mediation, emotional conditioning.

The mechanism of emotional contagion is related to the fact that a new emotion is assigned from another object. To infect a new emotion, the degree of emotional stress is important, sufficient to affect the emotional sphere of a person. Therefore, either the emotion itself must be strong, or a not very strong experience of emotion must occur in a large group of people, which enhances the degree of its severity. The mechanism of emotional contagion does not require a significant amount of time. The child, after a single presentation, appropriates the emotion shown to him, in the event that it affected his emotional sphere. But this mechanism is not effective enough, since we can not always control the situation in which this or that emotion manifested itself.

Emotional mediation is associated with the formation of an emotional attitude to a neutral object through its association with an emotionally significant one.

The study of the mechanisms of emotional mediation has demonstrated its connection with the reduction (decrease) in the strength of the need and the formation of behavior: "the more often the need is satisfied, the more stable the skill being formed" (K. Hull).

According to V.K. Vilyunas, emotional mediation is the essence of education. His position is based on the position of J.Zh. Rousseau, who believed that education is based on reinforcement, conditioning, real emotional impact.

Pedagogy, according to V.K. Viliunasu, is more busy developing images of desirable qualities and measures to achieve them, rather than education itself.

The mechanism of emotional mediation is associated with the need to repeat the situation in which the association occurs, so it requires a large amount of time. It is also worth noting that with insufficient reinforcement, nascent motivation may weaken. At the same time, emotional mediation presents a great opportunity to control the situation, since we know what motive forms this or that behavior.

Thus, we see that both emotional contagion and emotional mediation have some advantages and disadvantages. In this regard, in psychology, special attention is paid to imitation and identification (motivational imitation of a stable image) as mechanisms for the formation of emotions in particular and behavior in general.

These mechanisms are based on the connection between emotional contagion and emotional mediation. The formation of a new emotion is determined by the copied pattern: the process is mediated by this pattern, its reactions, state, and is controlled by the motivationally conditioned role of this pattern for the subject. So, a child is more likely to appropriate a not very bright emotion from an adult significant for him (mother, father, etc.) than a more intense one from an unfamiliar adult or peer.

The most effective mechanism for the formation of emotions is emotional conditioning. This mechanism involves “creating a connection between neutral and significant objects in an ideal way. An experience arises in the imagination, which gradually spreads to reality.

A special role in emotional conditioning is played by those activities that cause an emotional reaction of the subject. This is a game, the perception of works of art, music, literature, theater, cinema, etc.

Identification with role models in the game, the experiences of the characters and the author in the perceived works expands the emotional experience of the subject. In the event that a work is constructed in such a way that its form affects the experiences and experience of a person, then the threshold for its rational assessment, criticality is reduced. This becomes the basis for the appropriation of emotions in such a way of emotional infection, as in a joint real experience.

That is why in modern approaches to managing the formation of emotions in a child, the vast majority use tools built on gaming, theatrical, and musical and aesthetic activities.

1.1.2 Theories of emotion

Historically, the desire to find the root cause of emotional states led to the emergence of different points of view, which were reflected in the relevant theories.

In psychology, theory must explain human behavior by revealing specific psychological patterns.

In this case, we are interested in theories that describe, explain and predict the emotional behavior of a person, revealing the mechanisms of emotions and their specific content.

1. The first psychological theories of emotions (classical) explained human behavior based on observations. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. there was no single point of view on the nature of emotions. The most common position was based on the assertion that organic manifestations of emotions are the result of mental phenomena. The clearest formulation of this theory was given by I.F. Herbart, who believed that the fundamental psychological factor is representation, and the feelings we experience correspond to the connection that is established between different representations, and can be considered as a reaction to the conflict between representations. Thus, the image of a deceased acquaintance, compared with the image of this acquaintance as still alive, gives rise to sadness. In turn, this affective state involuntarily, almost reflexively, causes tears and organic changes that characterize grief.

W. Wundt (1832-1920) adhered to the same position. In his opinion, emotions are, first of all, changes characterized by the direct influence of feelings on the flow of ideas and, to some extent, the influence of the latter on feelings, and organic processes are only a consequence of emotions.

Thus, initially in the study of emotions, the opinion about the mental nature of emotions was established.

The system of basic ideas of the first psychological theories was as follows:

1) emotions are a consequence of the impact on a person of external factors (natural and social);

2) emotions characterize the internal state of a person;

3) the list of basic emotions is limited;

4) on the basis of primary emotions, an individual variety of experiences, called feelings, develops;

5) emotions give rise to desires, and, therefore, can serve as a source of human activity;

6) emotions can increase or decrease a person's ability to act;

7) a person is not always able to control his emotions;

8) a person may or may not be aware of his emotions and feelings;

9) emotions are a manifestation of the general laws of evolution.

There are very few purely psychological theories of emotions that do not affect physiological and other related processes. Throughout the history of the development and development of this field of knowledge, attempts have been made more than once to link physiological changes in the body with certain emotions and to show that complexes of organic signs that accompany various emotional processes do exist.

2. In 1872, C. Darwin published the book Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, which was a turning point in understanding the relationship between biological and psychological phenomena, including in relation to emotions, in understanding the origin of emotions and their connection with the behavior of living things. organisms. This book presented the theory of emotions later recognized by psychologists. Since that time, emotions have ceased to be a purely psychological phenomenon and have been regarded as a biopsychic phenomenon that plays an important role in the evolution and behavior of living organisms. In this book, Darwin showed that in the external expression of various emotional states, in bodily movements associated with emotions, there is much in common between humans and monkeys. In addition, Darwin noticed that the higher the position occupied by a living being on the evolutionary ladder, the richer and more diverse its emotional world. These observations formed the basis of the theory of emotions he created, which was called the evolutionary theory of emotions.

According to this theory, emotions appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as vital psychophysiological adaptive phenomena that contribute to survival, struggle for existence and adaptation of living beings to their living conditions. The bodily changes characteristic of different emotions and accompanying them, according to Darwin, are nothing more than the vestiges (remnants) of real adaptive movements that once existed in the process of evolution. So, for example, the emotion of fear is accompanied by exactly the same changes in the body that occur during flight. Therefore, the emotion of fear practically prepares the body to avoid harmful influences. The emotion of anger, for its part, is associated with such changes in the body that prepare it for an attack on an object that impedes the satisfaction of a need. It follows that the emotion of anger also plays a positive role in the adaptation of a living organism to the environment.

One of the main ideas of the evolutionary theory of emotions is that emotions arose and developed in the course of evolution as reactions that are very useful for animals and humans in their adaptation to living conditions. This explains the connection that exists between the richness of emotional manifestations and the complexity of the device of a living organism, as well as its ability to adapt to the environment and the changes taking place in it.

3. The modern history of emotions begins with the appearance in 1884 of the article by W. James "What is an emotion?". W. James, seeking to overcome the limitations of classical theories and develop the ideas expressed by Darwin, formulated his peripheral theory of emotions. He sought to rise above the level of concrete descriptions and point to one of the causes of emotions. It is best to state James's theory of emotions in his own words:

“It is generally accepted to think,” he wrote, “that in the gross forms of emotion, a mental impression received from a given object evokes in us a state of mind called emotion, and the latter entails a certain bodily manifestation. According to my theory, on the contrary, bodily excitement follows immediately the perception of the fact that caused it, and our consciousness of this excitement, while it is happening, is emotion. It is usually accepted to express it as follows: we have lost our fortune, weep and weep, we have met with a bear, we are frightened and take flight, we are offended by the enemy, enraged and strike him. According to the hypothesis I defend, the order of events must be somewhat different; it is the first state of mind that is not immediately replaced by the second: between them there must be bodily manifestations, and therefore it is most rationally expressed as follows: we are saddened because we cry, enraged because we beat another, we are afraid because we tremble ... If bodily manifestations did not immediately follow perceptions. That last would have been in its form a purely cognitive act, pale, devoid of color and emotional "warmth". In this case, we might see a bear and decide that it is best to take flight, we might inflict an insult and find it fair to repel the blow, but we would not feel fear and indignation at the same time.

James argued that every perception, through a certain kind of physical effect, has a widespread effect on our body, preceding the emergence in us of emotions or an emotional image.

According to James's theory, with emotions we experience different sensations coming from different parts of the body. Emotion is a product of the state of the whole organism, from each part of the organism various sensory impressions, weak and strong, pleasant and unpleasant, certain and indefinite, penetrate into consciousness, from which a sense of personality is formed, constantly aware of each person.

In what way do objects that evoke emotions give rise to bodily excitations in us? Answering this question, James notes that there is still no clear picture here and, as a possible origin of emotional reactions, he cites explanations, primarily of Darwin. For example, the emotions associated with the destruction of someone (the enemy) are expressed in the general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of teeth, releasing claws, in expanding eyes and snorting, which is a condition for a successful fight. Such a feature as baring teeth, exposing the upper teeth, slanting the mouth to the side, is considered by Darwin as something we have inherited from our ancestors. Raising the eyebrows is associated with opening the eyes to see better.

The expression of disgust is the beginning of the movements associated with vomiting, the expression of contentment is analogous to the smile of a person sucking something sweet. The affirmative nod is analogous to bending down the head to eat.

Citing the examples noted above to explain the origin of emotional reactions, James simultaneously states that the proposed causes do not explain all emotional bodily manifestations. These include: the feeling of a “piece in the throat” with severe sadness, heart anguish with fear, peculiar phenomena occurring in the viscera and internal glands, etc.

In conclusion, we note that from the peripheral theory of emotions, we can conclude how to manage our emotions. Suppress the external manifestation of passion in yourself, and it will freeze in you. Before you give in to a flash of anger, try to count to ten - and the reason for anger will seem insignificant to you. If we want to suppress an unwanted emotional attraction in ourselves, we must patiently reproduce on ourselves external movements corresponding to the opposite spiritual moods that are desirable for us.

Thus, it can be noted that the James theory reflects a number of significant phenomena that explain what emotions are and how they develop and are expressed.

Almost at the same time as James (1884), Lange (1885) expressed similar views on the nature of emotions in his "vascular-motor theory of emotions." According to Lange's theory, emotions are the result of awareness of vasomotor changes occurring in the body. Analyzing, for example, sadness, Lange writes: “Eliminate fatigue and lethargy of the muscles, let blood rush to the skin and brain, there will be lightness in the members, and nothing will remain of sadness.”

Lange's theory proceeds from the same premises as the James theory, but on a more limited physiological basis. Therefore, to a certain extent, it can be considered a special case of the James theory. In the historical aspect, these are two theories that appeared almost simultaneously, so they are usually combined and referred to as the James-Lange theory of emotions.

4. Neuropsychological theories of emotions (central theories of emotions). Already Edward Claparede (1873-1940), a supporter of James's theory, noted that his theory faced great difficulties.

“If emotion is only the consciousness of peripheral changes in the organism, then why is it perceived as an emotion, and not as an “organic sensation”? Why, when frightened, am I aware of the “presence of fear” in myself, and not just some organic impressions, trembling, heartbeat, etc.? Claparede himself answers this question as follows:

“Emotions are the consciousness of the global setting of the body ... It is known that in the case of emotional perception, it is more useful to know the general setting of the body than separate, united into a whole, elementary sensations. Perception of the details of internal sensations should not be of great interest to the individual. Action is the most important thing for the organism… What the consciousness grasps in emotions is, so to speak, the form of the organism itself, or its setting.”

By virtue of what has been said, emotion is directly, unconditionally, "understood" by those who experience it. Emotion contains its significance in itself.

A major step in explaining the emergence of emotions can be made on the basis of physiological and neurophysiological studies of emotions. These studies began at the beginning of the 20th century, but they began to be carried out especially actively from the 1930s and 1940s to the present. The purpose of these studies was to search for the brain "substrate" of emotions, to study the role of certain parts of the brain in the emergence of emotions and in the organization of emotional and behavioral acts.

The American physiologist Cannon and the Canadian physiologist Bard, in contrast to the then dominant James-Lange theory, formulated the thalamic theory of emotions. The main provisions of this theory are as follows:

1) emotions are not reflections of the processes occurring in the body, but correspond to what is happening in the human head, namely, in the thalamus;

2) there is and the main one is the direct way of the emergence of emotions, bypassing the internal organs. It consists in the fact that the information about the emotional stimulus perceived by the senses immediately enters the thalamus, is processed there, correlates with the actual needs of the body and then directly enters the brain, where emotion arises as a direct reflection of the CGM processes occurring in the thalamus.

In later studies, it was found that of all the structures of the brain, it is not even the thalamus itself that is most connected with emotions, but the hypothalamus, and the central parts of the limbic system.

The Cannon-Bard theory was further developed under the influence of experimental work in the field of neurophysiology of emotions, which convincingly shows the leading role of the central mechanisms of the brain in the formation of human emotions. In the brain, centers of "pleasure" and "displeasure" were found, the electrical stimulation of which caused, respectively, pleasant and unpleasant emotional experiences (such as, for example, anger and fear); topographic schemes of zones of centrally located structures associated with emotional reactions of a particular type were built; emotional reaction depends not only on the activation of a specific “point of the brain”, but also on the surrounding conditions; the multifunctionality of individual brain structures was shown, in particular, the multifunctionality of the temporal areas of the neocortex: they perform not only auditory, but also activation and integral functions; and etc.

Let us now try, on the basis of the foregoing, to answer the question posed by Claparède.

“The process of understanding peripheral changes as “emotions” and not as “organic sensations” occurs because there are specialized neurons (or their networks), the stimulation of which leads to an experience associated primarily with basic emotions, i.e. in principle, in the same way as the perception of the external objective world occurs. In emotions, the perception of the internal state of the body is carried out, the result of this perception are experiences. As the perception of the external world (images) is carried out by the functional system (visual), so the perception of the internal state (experience) is carried out by the functional system of emotions. Thus, we can say that emotions (experiences) are a property of the functional system of the brain that implements the functions of reflecting the internal state of the organism.

5. Cognitive theories. Following the theories explaining emotions on the basis of physiological processes occurring in the body, in particular in the brain, there appeared theories of emotions that describe the origins of emotions based on psychological processes and their influence on human behavior. It turned out that in the dynamics of a person's emotional states, cognitive-psychological factors play no less a role than organic changes or physiological processes. In this regard, cognitive theories have been proposed to explain the origin of emotions and their change based on mental processes.

One of the first such theories was the theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger.

According to this theory, a person has a positive emotional experience when his expectations are confirmed, and his knowledge and ideas come true, i.e. when the actual results of the activity correspond to what was planned. Negative emotions arise and intensify in cases where there are significant discrepancies between the expected and actual performance results (inconsistency or cognitive dissonance). Subjectively, the state of cognitive dissonance is experienced by a person as discomfort, and he seeks to get rid of it as soon as possible. The way out of the state of cognitive dissonance can be twofold: either change cognitive expectations and plans in such a way that they correspond to the result actually obtained during the activity, or try to get a new result corresponding to the expected one.

In one of the experiments aimed at testing the correctness of the cognitive theory of emotions, people were offered a physiologically neutral solution as a medicine, which had no effect on the body. The oral administration of this solution was accompanied by various instructions. In one case, the instructions stated that the drug would cause a state of euphoria, in the other - a state of anger. After taking the appropriate medication, the subjects were asked after some time how they actually felt. It turned out that the subjects experienced exactly those emotions that, according to the instructions, the corresponding medicine should have evoked in them.

It was also found that the nature and intensity of a person's emotional experiences in a given situation depend on how they are experienced by other nearby people. This means that emotional states can be transmitted from person to person, and in a person, unlike animals, the quality of experienced emotional states depends on his personal attitude towards the one with whom he empathizes at a given moment in time.

To what has already been said about the conditions and factors influencing the emergence and change of emotions, S. Shekhter added his considerations. He showed that emotional processes also depend on the memory and motivation of a person. The concept of emotions he proposed was called cognitive-physiological.

According to this theory, the emerging emotional state of a person, in addition to the stimuli he perceives and the bodily changes generated by these stimuli, can be influenced by past experience (memory) and a person’s assessment of the current situation from the point of view of his actual needs (motivation). An indirect confirmation of the validity of this theory is the influence of verbal instructions, as well as additional, emotional information, which is intended to change the assessment of the situation.

Another version of the cognitive theory of emotions was proposed by P.V. Simonov. He called his theory informational. It argues that the strength of an emotion that arises in a person depends on two factors: on the strength of the need with which the emotion is associated, and on the availability of the information the person needs to satisfy the corresponding need. The author expressed the essence of this theory in the following formula:

E \u003d F (P, (Ineobkh. - Inal.)),

where E - emotion; P - need; Ineobh. - information necessary for a person to fully satisfy this need; Inal. - information that a person has.

Accordingly, the greater the difference between what a person needs and what he has (in terms of the availability of information), the stronger the experienced emotion will be.

Until now, there is no single point of view on the nature of emotions. Emotional research is still being intensively carried out. The currently accumulated experimental and theoretical material allows us to speak about the dual nature of emotions. On the one hand, these are subjective factors, which include various mental phenomena, including cognitive processes, features of the organization of a person's value system, etc. On the other hand, emotions are determined by the physiological characteristics of the individual. It can be argued that emotions arise as a result of exposure to a certain stimulus, and their appearance is nothing more than a manifestation of the mechanisms of human adaptation and regulation of his behavior. We can also assume that emotions were formed in the process of evolution of the animal world and they reached the maximum level of development in humans, since they are represented objectively at the level of feelings.

1.1.3 The role of emotions in human life

Emotions and feelings permeate the whole life of a person, highlighting the most important events for him. This alone determines their enormous role in the inner world of each individual, and indeed in all human cultures.

Our life is full of experiences: pleasure and displeasure, love and hate, hope and disappointment, confidence and despair, gaiety and depression, pride and shame, longing, rage, jealousy, etc. Emotions manifest themselves as processes and states, in stable forms of response they can go to personality traits. Emotions “are stamped with something especially close to the subject experiencing them” (S.L. Rubinshtein).

Emotions are recognized as an important positive role in people's lives, and the following positive functions are associated with them:

1. Motivation-regulating function. It lies in the fact that emotions are involved in the motivation of human behavior, they can induce, direct and regulate it. In addition, sometimes emotions can replace thinking in the regulation of behavior. In critical situations, emotions tell a person how to act, and, obeying them, i.e. his intuition, a person often finds the right way out of the current situation. The affect that arises in such a situation prompts a person to a fairly reasonable course of action. One of the essential manifestations of affect, according to V.K. Vilyunas, consists in the fact that he "imposing stereotyped actions on the subject, is a certain way of "emergency" resolution of the situation, fixed in evolution: flight, stupor, aggression, etc."

The motivational-regulating function of emotions is also manifested in the fact that they can activate (sthenic emotions) or inhibit (asthenic emotions) human activity.

2. Communicative function. It lies in the fact that emotions, more precisely, the ways of their external expression, carry information about the mental and physical state of a person, and, therefore, with the help of emotions, people can exchange essential information with each other. Thanks to emotions, we better understand each other, we can, without using speech, only by observing the change in the emotional state of each other, judge what is happening in the psyche.

3. Signal function. Life without emotions is just as impossible as life without sensations. Emotionally expressive movements of a person - facial expressions, gestures, pantomime - perform the function of signals about the state of the system of human needs. If everything is in order with her, if the process of satisfying vital needs is normal, then the person experiences positive emotions; if in this process there are failures and any problems, then the person will experience negative emotions.

4. Protective function. This function is manifested in the fact that emotion, arising as an instantaneous, quick reaction of the body, can protect a person from dangers threatening him.

The important mobilization, integrative-protective role of emotion was pointed out by P.K. Anokhin. He wrote: “Having performed an almost instantaneous integration of all the functions of the body, emotions in themselves, in the first place, can be an absolute signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body, often even before the localization of effects and the mechanism of the response of the body are determined.”

From the above list and the definition of the vital functions of emotions, it follows that, firstly, they affect all aspects of human life, and secondly, they play a significant role in all types of internal (mental, mental) and external (practical) human activities.

1.2 Age features of the development of the emotional sphere of children

1.2.1 Modern approaches to managing the formation and development of the child's emotional sphere

An analysis of the main systems for the development of the child's emotional sphere makes it possible to single out several approaches.

The most developed approach can be considered, the purpose of which is related to the enrichment of the emotional sphere, the stimulation of aesthetic experiences, the development of artistic, musical, acting abilities. The methods developed within the framework of this approach are mainly related to the compilation of holistic concepts and training programs and can be considered pedagogical or psycho-pedagogical. Proper psychological methods are also distinguished, which are based on psychological conceptual approaches. It should be noted that, when solving the issue of the emotional development of the child, representatives of this approach, as a rule, seek to expand his creative potential.

The second approach to improving the emotional sphere of the child began to take shape relatively recently. The purpose of this approach is related to the development of methods for the psychological correction of negative emotional states, dysfunctions or lags in the development of the emotional sphere of the child, as well as personality traits that develop on the basis of negative processes. In general, the goal of the second approach can be defined as the harmonization of the functioning of the emotional sphere of the child.

Introduction.

Emotion (from lat. emoveo - shake, excite) - a psychophysiological process of internal regulation of human or animal activity, reflecting a subjective evaluative attitude to existing or possible situations or behavior.
The abstract reveals general ideas about emotional reactions, the emergence of emotions and their age characteristics.
The emergence of emotions is associated with special physiological processes in the body. The development of these processes is connected with the changes taking place in the external world surrounding a person, affects the activity of the whole organism. Emotions play a big role in a person's life, their influence on the complex behavior of a person is very large. We are talking about the realization of the vital needs of the body, such as food, drink, sexual, maternal functions, feelings of anxiety, fear, and others. These emotional functions, as well as the maintenance of the body's internal environment, are controlled and controlled by the limbic system and the hypothalamus. The limbic system, sometimes called the visceral brain, due to its great role in the regulation of autonomic functions, includes the structures of the olfactory brain, the cingulate and dentate gyrus, the hypocampus, the fornix of the brain, and some others. In the limbic system and the hypothalamus, areas of the brain were identified, when damaged or irritated, an uncontrollable food reaction appears or, conversely, food refusal. With emotional experiences, blood circulation changes: the heartbeat quickens or slows down, the tone of blood vessels changes, blood pressure rises or falls, etc. As a result, with some emotional experiences, a person blushes, with others, he turns pale. The heart reacts so sensitively to all changes in emotional life that among the people it has always been considered a "sense organ", despite the fact that changes occur in the respiratory, digestive and secretory systems.
All changes in the functioning of various organs and systems of the body are subject to the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, the excitation of which leads to the release of the hormone adrenaline by the adrenal glands. It is adrenaline that causes a change in the functioning of organs and systems, brings them into a state of readiness for an emergency expenditure of energy. This is manifested in the outflow of blood from the internal organs, increased blood supply to the skeletal muscles, the delay in the work of the digestive organs, the release of more sugar into the blood - one of the main sources of muscle energy. The reactions of the sympathetic nervous system are stereotyped and are the same for different emotions. Moreover, similar reactions are observed in some states not directly related to emotions (during muscular work, in the cold, etc.).
Studies have shown that in the event of a shutdown (cutting) of the entire sympathetic system, external signs of emotions are preserved.

1. Physiology of emotions

The main, leading role in the flow of feelings is played by the cerebral cortex. IP Pavlov showed that it is the cortex that regulates the development, flow and expression of emotions, keeps under its control all the phenomena occurring in the body, has an inhibitory effect on the subcortical centers, controls them. If the cerebral cortex enters a state of excessive excitation (due to overwork, intoxication, etc.), then there is also an overexcitation of the centers lying below the cortex, as a result of which the usual restraint disappears. The fact that the cerebral cortex is the substratum of feelings is also evidenced by clinical cases in which there is a sharp discrepancy between subjective experience and their external expression. In such patients, any stimulus can cause an external reaction that is completely inappropriate for them: bursts of laughter or streams of tears. Arising in the cerebral cortex, the physiological process, which is the basis of feelings, extends to the underlying subcortical centers. Electrophysiological studies have shown great importance for the emotional states of special formations of the nervous system. Emotional mood and emotional orientation in the environment is largely determined by the functions of the thalamus, hypothalamus and limbic system. In the experiments of D. Olds with the implantation of electrodes in certain areas of the hypothalamus, it was found that when some areas were stimulated, the experimental subjects had clearly pleasant, emotionally positive sensations, which they actively sought to resume. These areas are called "pleasure centers". Irritation of other areas caused negative emotions and a desire to avoid affecting these structures, in connection with which they were called "centers of suffering." The study of the functional asymmetry of the brain found that the left hemisphere is more associated with the emergence and maintenance of positive emotions, and the right - negative ones.
The important role of the reticular formation of the brain has been established. The reticular formation is a structure that activates the emotional life of a person. Receiving nerve stimuli from various sense organs, the reticular formation sends them after processing to the cerebral hemispheres. Acting as an "accumulator" of energy, the reticular formation is able to lower and increase brain activity, enhance, weaken or inhibit responses to acting stimuli.
A significant role in the emotional experiences of a person is played by the second signaling system. Experiences can arise not only under the direct influence of the external environment, but can also be caused by words, thoughts. The connections of the second signaling system are the physiological basis of higher human feelings - intellectual, moral, aesthetic. The inseparable connection of the second signal system with the first ensures the conscious regulation of feelings and the social nature of their external manifestations.
Emotional states are manifested not only in internal experiences, but also in external manifestations. A person judges the emotional states of other people by special, expressive gestures, movements, facial expressions, voice changes, etc. Certain feelings correspond to their specific forms of expression. For example, fear is expressed in the dilation of the pupils, in trembling, in pallor, and joy is expressed in the sparkle of the eyes, in the reddening of the face, in the acceleration of movements, etc. C. Darwin considered the external manifestations of emotions as vestiges (remnants) of the actions of attack and defense, which our distant ancestors, monkeys, had. He established many similarities in the external manifestations of emotions in monkeys and humans. So, with strong anger, a person can involuntarily clench his fists, and with fear, he seems to shrink, lower his head, as if he wants to hide or take flight.

2. Age features of emotional reactions.

There is evidence that some emotional manifestations are already inherent in a newborn child. So, according to Dembovsky, three innate mechanisms of activation of the nervous apparatus of emotions function in a newborn: fear during the sudden action of strong sound or vestibular irritation, anger during violent immobilization, and pleasure when stroking the skin, especially in the area of erogenous zones.
Already in the neonatal period in the first weeks of life, against the background of still undifferentiated sensations, a manifestation of emotionality is noted in the child. These are “sensual emotional states or emotionally emphasized states of sensations”. Already by the age of one month, the child reacts to the mother with a "revitalization complex" throws up his arms, quickly moves his legs and smiles, which indicates the establishment of a strong connection with the mother and the need for communication. Communication with close adults (especially with the mother) contributes to the emotional development of the infant. In the first 3-4 months of life, the child has various emotional reactions: surprise, which is expressed in the inhibition of movements and heart rate; anxiety due to physical discomfort, manifested in the activation of movements and heart rate, squinting, crying; relaxation while satisfying the need. After 3-4 months of age, the emotional reaction of joy is transferred from the mother to familiar people, while strangers cause a state of anxiety and anxiety, which sharply increases at 7-8 months.
Between the ages of 7 and 11 months there is an emotional reaction of sadness or acute fright (so-called "separation fear") to the disappearance or absence of the mother. The emotional contact of the child with close adults is enhanced by joint actions (and, moreover, facilitates joint actions).
The age from 6 weeks to 6 months is critical for the formation of the relationship of the child with the mother, while a later age (up to 3 years) is considered critical in relation to those mental disorders (sometimes distant) that separation from the mother entails.
The emotionality of the child is sharply aggravated during the transitional period between infancy and early childhood, i.e. at the age of 1 year (this is a crisis of 1 year): affective outbursts to prohibitions (the words “no” and “impossible”) and to adults’ misunderstanding of his desires (which entail a forecast of dissatisfaction of needs) intensify. A one-year-old child has a significantly increased need for communication with adults.
In the period of early childhood (from 1 to 3 years), the child reacts very affectively to signals in connection with the development of his emotional-need sphere; his desires are unstable and difficult to control, they are limited only by rewards and punishments.
In early childhood, there is a need to communicate with peers, but the child often shows aggressiveness and self-centeredness. Emotional reactions become more vivid and violent, especially in connection with difficulties in momentary satisfaction of immediate desires, as well as in connection with the desire to attract attention.
During the transitional period between early and preschool childhood, i.e. in a crisis of 3 years, the child's desires begin to dominate negativism, the desire to act contrary to the instructions of the elders. Other difficulties of the age of 3 are connected with this: stubbornness, obstinacy, self-will, despotism (if this child is the only one in the family), jealousy (if there are siblings), which in total characterizes the child's desire for self-affirmation and power.
The entire period from newborn to preschool age is a very important period for the normal development and formation of the emotional sphere. And at this time, communication with the mother is especially important for the child. In the case of a lack of maternal affection and attention, various deviations in emotional development occur, which leads to a subsequent violation of the behavior of an already large child and even an adult. This is evidenced by observations of children who grew up without parental affection and communication, even in the presence of well-being in meeting other biological needs.
For a person in this regard, the age of up to 3 years is especially vulnerable, when the formation of the emotional sphere especially needs maternal attention and affection.
At preschool age (from 3 to 7 years), the development of the motivational-emotional sphere proceeds relatively calmly. This period is characterized by the absence of strong affective outbursts and conflicts over minor issues. Emotional processes become more balanced. However, the emotional life of the child is quite rich. The child develops the ability to predict the result of his actions, and in connection with this, the phenomenon of emotional anticipation appears. If in early childhood the child does not yet predictively evaluate either his actions or their results, but is guided only by encouragement and punishment, then at preschool age he already builds a preliminary emotional image that reflects both the expected result and the assessment by adults. If the expected result is evaluated emotionally negatively, then the child has anxiety traits in his behavior, which can slow down the behavior. If the expected result is evaluated emotionally positively, then the behavior aimed at achieving this result is additionally stimulated. During this period, the structure of emotional processes changes: in addition to vegetative and motor components, this includes complex forms of perception, imaginative thinking and imagination. The content of affects changes, sympathy for others appears, empathy, which contributes to the complication and deepening of children's communication. All activities of the child become emotionally saturated. At the same time, the child learns to restrain unwanted manifestations of emotions. In the motivational sphere, subordination of motives appears with the identification of dominant motivation among subdominant ones. There are also new motives associated with the socialization of the child, with his self-esteem, self-love, such as the desire for self-assertion, leadership, success, cognitive activity, etc.
At primary school age (from 7 to 11 years old), the child experiences a crisis of 7 years, when his behavior is restructured in connection with a new (educational) situation. If the crisis of 3 years is associated with the awareness of one's "I" in the world, then the crisis of 7 years is associated with the awareness of one's "I" in society, with the birth of the social "I" of the child. The emotional sphere at this age is included in the satisfaction of needs associated with developing specific motivations. These are motivation to achieve success in studies, prestigious motivation, motivation to avoid failures, compensatory motivation. At the age of 10-12 years, higher emotions acquire leading significance, the formation of which is completed only by the age of 20-22, i.e. by the time the formation of the higher parts of the nervous system is completed.
In adolescence (from 11 to 15 years), a special place is occupied by the crisis of puberty, characterized by increased vulnerability, emotional instability, which is enhanced by sexual arousal: “Their (teenagers) mood fluctuates between radiant optimism and the most gloomy pessimism” (A. Freud). During this period, gender identity reaches a higher level, although adolescents are still largely (especially psychologically) bisexual. At this time, a new image of the physical “I” is formed, due to the hypertrophied significance of which the teenager often develops an “inferiority complex”, which leads to the dominance of negative emotionality. By the end of adolescence, in most cases, the “I-concept” is formed, including the “I” emotional, social, physical, intellectual, real and ideal; and the dominance of a positive or negative emotional coloring in the mood of a teenager largely depends on his feeling of his conformity or inconsistency with his own
"I-concepts".
In the transition period between adolescence and adolescence (14-16 years) and in early adolescence (from 15 to 17 years), the emotional intensity of friendship is inferior to the emotionality of love (or falling in love), and often there is a mismatch between love, as a high feeling, and sexual need. (especially in boys). Despite this, one can speak of a general emotional stabilization that began already during the formation of the "I-concept". During this period, young men, in comparison with adolescents, have increased self-esteem and increased control over the manifestation of emotions, the mood becomes more stable and conscious, regardless of temperament.
However, emotional difficulties and the painful course of adolescence are by-products and not universal properties of youth. There seems to be a general pattern according to which, along with the level of organization and self-regulation of the body, emotional sensitivity increases, but at the same time, the possibilities of psychological defense also increase. The range of factors that can cause emotional arousal in a person does not narrow with age, but expands. The ways of expressing emotions become more diverse, the duration of emotional reactions caused by short-term irritation increases, and so on. If an adult person reacted to all irritants with the spontaneity of a child, he would inevitably die from overexcitation and emotional instability - after all, the range of relationships that are significant for him is much wider than that of a child. However, an adult is saved by the development of effective mechanisms of internal inhibition and self-control, as well as the ability to selectively respond to external influences.
By the age of 17, the emotional sphere reaches the stability of an adult, and its further state will already depend on a number of additional situational factors, naturally, in interaction with the factors of the person’s inner world, in particular, with the traits of his temperament that contribute to the development of neurosis or oppose it.
The emotional sphere in the elderly is very strongly associated with general age-related changes in blood circulation: hypertonic layers increase anxiety, irritability and aggressiveness of a person, sclerotic processes in the brain contribute to the development of vulnerability and sentimentality, on the one hand, and the loss of interest in life with a general decrease in emotionality and deepening depression, on the other hand, which is naturally associated with changes in the course of neurochemical processes.

Conclusion.

Emotions change the state of the whole organism. Negative emotions have a bad effect on health, oppress a person: he becomes lethargic, absent-minded, apathetic. A sharp expression of negative emotions is crying. Positive emotions, the expression of which is a smile, laughter, increase the intensity of energy processes. Soot
etc.................

In the process of learning about the surrounding reality and himself, in the process of communicating with adults and peers, the child experiences various emotions and feelings, which largely determine his behavior, giving it emotional coloring and expressiveness. In the emotional development of young children, an important role is played by the complexity of activities, the features of the functioning of the nervous system and individual experience of communication with close adults, peers (Fig. 7.2).

Rice. 7.2.

The emotional sphere of the child is characterized by a number of age-related features (Fig. 7.3). At this age stage, his emotional reactions are quite impulsive, the expression of emotions is direct. Children act without thinking, under the influence of momentary emotions that have arisen. Perception that dominates at an early age is emotionally colored, which makes it possible for children to respond emotionally only to directly perceived stimuli.

Emotional development at an early age is accompanied by the formation of mechanisms of emotional synthonia and emotional decentration. By the beginning of an early age, syntony takes shape as an infection with the corresponding emotional state in direct interaction. Gradually, emotional synthonia loses its meaning. Emotional decentration is based on positional emotional switching, which is initially carried out in an involuntary form. Early childhood is characterized by the development of an empathic response to objects and situations. In addition to close relatives, the child also includes peers as objects of empathy.

At the age of two, a child can emotionally respond to the experiences of his peer, but this manifestation of empathy is based on the identification of oneself with another, one's own feelings with the feelings of one's neighbor. Only by the age of three do signs of emotional decentration appear (singling oneself out as a unit of society), and this allows the child to differentiate his experiences as existing separately from the world around him. Despite this, the main mechanism of empathy during the transition from early to preschool age remains identification.

Rice. 7.3.

The child's emotions are unstable and short-term, he cannot control and restrain them, they are limited only by the punishments and encouragements of adults. Vivid emotional experiences arise in connection with the immediate desires of the child, with the results of his activities. Emotions reflect the level of satisfaction of the growing needs of children (cognitive, motor, communicative, etc.). The experience of displeasure with children can manifest itself in the form of emotions of fear, anger, sadness, disgust, and the experience of pleasure - as an experience of joy, delight, tenderness, tenderness, etc. Intense emotional reactions are manifested to the difficulties faced by the child. The cause of emotional outbursts (screaming or crying) can be unsuccessful actions with objects, lack of attention of close adults to the child, jealousy of a brother or sister, etc. Such emotional states quickly pass: a young child is easily distracted, since his nervous processes are not distinguished by stamina and strength. Children have not developed the ability to emotional self-regulation: a child at the beginning of early childhood is not able to hide his feelings and control them, to give out one emotion for another, which is typical for the behavior of children at an older age.

The child is spontaneous and impulsive, as well as unstable and labile in expressing his emotional states. The pronounced instability of emotional states and experiences is the result of the weakness of mental processes, both of a regulatory and reflective nature. At an early age, the ability to adequately perceive the emotions of other people is poorly expressed. Children for quite a long time poorly differentiate not only the shades of feelings expressed through facial expression and with the help of voice intonations, but they do not always accurately determine the sign of an emotion. The leading sign is the strength of expression, which the child is guided by at two years of age and later.

During early childhood, there is a gradual regular change in the emotional sphere of the child, its complication and enrichment (Table 7.1). The development of the emotional sphere is closely connected with the development of other mental processes, in particular, with speech, which contributes to the child's awareness of his feelings and emotional manifestations and creates the prerequisites for managing them. However, at an early age, the word cannot yet evoke any emotional experience in the child, since the verbal signal does not yet have the corresponding evaluative meaning. It is acquired in the case of additional reinforcement of the word by a certain emotional attitude of an adult (facial expressions, gestures, intonation, actions).

Table 7.1

Patterns of changes in the emotional sphere of a child at an early age

	Prerequisites and conditions for changes
Expansion of emotional modalities (basic - social)	Increasing the level of interaction with adults and peers based on the enrichment of emotional experience
Recognition of emotions by facial expressions	The need to expand the means of communication and support of gaming activity, subject to differentiation in the perception of emotional states
Expansion and complication of knowledge about emotions	The required level of cognitive development and the amount of emotional experience
Formation of the structure of ideas about emotions	Formation of a system of knowledge about an emotional phenomenon: causes, content, ways of expression and consequences of a certain type of emotional reaction
Verbal designation of emotions	Formation of a "dictionary of emotions", denoting the essence and name of emotional manifestations

Toward the end of an early age, higher senses begin to develop. The child becomes capable of experiencing elementary aesthetic feelings. Children begin to distinguish the ugly, disharmonious from the beautiful, harmonious. At the end of an early age, when the crisis of three years approaches, the following may appear: inadequate long-term response of the child to a harmless remark; phenomena of mixed aggressiveness, when a child, in response to the negative influence of an adult, intensifies hostility towards a third person; emotional negativism and passive avoidance of communication.

Practical example

Denis K., 3 years old. This year I went to kindergarten. About a month ago there were changes in behavior, not for the better: if adults do not allow something, the boy starts screaming, throwing cars (or whatever comes to hand), spits, stamps his foot, shows with his fist. Reactions to the ban are always violent and often aggressive. Before that, there was an obedient and calm affectionate child.

In general, at an early age, emotional reactions are characterized by short duration, instability, lability, intensity, and uncontrollability. During early childhood, emotional experience is enriched, emotions are socialized, higher feelings are developed, and the prerequisites for emotional self-regulation are laid.

3.4.1. Children junior school age is distinguished by a very high emotionality, they still do not know how to manage their emotional states. But gradually they become more restrained and balanced. Children are characterized by a long, stable, joyful and cheerful mood, but some of them have negative affective states associated with a discrepancy between an overestimated level of claims and modest results of educational work. Cognitive, aesthetic and especially moral feelings change in a peculiar way. The intellectual feelings of a child of this age are connected with the satisfaction of his growing curiosity and insatiable thirst for knowledge. Children like to read, watch TV, they strive to acquire more and more new knowledge and impressions. During this period, favorable conditions are created for the development of aesthetic feelings, the education of aesthetic taste. It is easy to create a love for listening to music and singing in younger students. They are able to quite sensitively and subtly understand a piece of music and accurately characterize it. Children are able to perceive pictures, learn to distinguish truly beautiful from all sorts of fakes. Feelings, including aesthetic ones, are a specific form of reflection of the environment. Therefore, they are formed and developed where nature, environment, household items can satisfy an aesthetic need. But this is not enough - purposeful inclusion in various forms of activity is necessary: observation, listening, playing instruments, singing, dancing, drawing, etc.

Profound changes are taking place in children and in the sphere of moral feelings. They can already experience high moral feelings: care and sensitivity not only to relatives (parents, teacher), but also to strangers who have shown courage, nobility, devotion. For children of this age, various assessments of their actions and the actions of other people, as well as judgments about them, are extremely characteristic. Emotional reactions of schoolchildren to this or that event directly depend on the degree of their "tightness" or on the level of their claims.

The formation of cognitive, aesthetic and moral feelings requires the development of a certain system of relevant knowledge by the child. Based on them, value judgments and a variety of feelings are formed. Human feelings based on knowledge become justified and stable. However, the development of moral concepts does not guarantee the emergence of moral feelings in a child, and even more so moral deeds. Feelings, especially moral ones, develop on the basis of the formation of a single system of associations: knowledge - feelings - actions. Education, aimed only at improving one of these links, isolated from the other two, leads either to formalism and sentimentalism, or to experiences that hide indifference and callousness.

3.4.2. Central and specific neoplasm teenager is the idea that he has of himself as no longer a child - he begins to feel like an adult, strives to be an adult. The peculiarity of this feature, called a sense of adulthood, lies in the fact that a teenager rejects his belonging to children, but he still does not have a feeling of true, full-fledged adulthood, although there is a need for others to recognize his adulthood.

This feature of a teenager determines the direction of his social activity: he seeks to perceive and assimilate the forms, values and ways of behavior that exist in the world of adults and their relationships. Adolescents strive for independence, a certain independence, they are very sensitive to the assessments of adults, the belittling of their dignity and rights. Treating them as “little ones” offends them and repels them from adults. At the same time, girls are more than boys concerned about what others think of them, they are much more sensitive to criticism and ridicule. Some features of the emotional reactions of adolescence are rooted in hormonal and physiological processes. Physiologists explain adolescent mental imbalance and its characteristic abrupt mood swings, transitions from exaltation to depression and from depression to exaltation by an increase in general excitation at puberty and a weakening of all types of conditioned inhibition.

However, the emotional reactions and behavior of adolescents, not to mention young men, cannot be explained solely by hormonal shifts. They also depend on social factors and conditions of upbringing, and individual typological differences very often prevail over age differences. The psychological difficulties of growing up, the inconsistency of the level of claims and the image of the "I" often lead to the fact that emotional tension, typical for a teenager, also captures the years of youth. Projective tests (Rorschach test, thematic apperception test) show an increase in the level of anxiety from 12 to 16 years. At the same age, there is a peak in the spread of dysmorphomania syndrome (nonsense of physical deficiency). After 13-14 years, according to the psychiatrist A.A. Mehrabyan, the number of personality disorders sharply increases.

3.4.3. Emotional difficulties are incidental and non-universal features of youth. There is a general pattern according to which, with the level of organization and self-regulation of the body, emotional sensitivity increases, and at the same time, the possibilities of psychological defense increase. The range of factors that can cause emotional arousal in a person does not narrow with age, but expands.

The ways of expressing emotions become more diverse, the duration of emotional reactions caused by short-term irritation increases, and so on. If an adult responded to all stimuli with

immediacy of the child, he would have died from overexcitation and emotional instability - after all, the circle of relationships that are significant for him is much wider than children's.

However, an adult is saved by the development of effective mechanisms of internal inhibition and self-control, as well as the ability to selectively respond to external influences, D. Hebb and W. Thompson note. Growing older, the child learns to control and suppress some external manifestations of emotions, emotions seem to go inward, internalize, creating internal sources of excitation, and at the same time differentiate.

Older schoolchildren show the highest level of anxiety compared to other ages in all areas of communication, but their anxiety increases especially sharply in communication with parents and those adults on whom they are to some extent dependent.

The emotional problems of adolescence have different origins. Adolescent dysmorphomania syndrome - preoccupation with one's body and appearance - usually disappears in adolescence. The sharp increase in the number of personality disorders is mainly due to the fact that children do not have such disorders at all because of the underdevelopment of their self-awareness. Painful symptoms and anxieties that appear in adolescence are often not so much a reaction to the specific difficulties of the age itself, but a manifestation of the delayed effect of earlier psychic traumas. Recent research rejects the notion of adolescence as a "neurotic" period of development. For most people, the transition from adolescence to adolescence is accompanied by an improvement in communication and overall emotional well-being. According to the American psychologist R. Cattell, from 12 to 17 years of age, indicators for such factors as sociability, ease of dealing with people, dominance (perseverance, competitiveness, desire to dominate) noticeably improve, while general excitability, on the contrary, decreases.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the relationship between needs and emotions?

2. What are the conditions for the formation of the emotional sphere?

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