Quilling Christmas tree. Quilling Christmas tree: master class on the symbol of the New Year from paper lace

Philosophy(ancient Greek φιλοσοφία - love of wisdom, philosophy; from φιλέω - love and σοφία - wisdom) - a discipline that studies the most general essential characteristics and fundamental principles of reality (being) and knowledge, human existence, the relationship between man and the world. Philosophy is usually described as a theory or science, one of the forms of worldview, one of the forms of human activity, a special way of knowing.

History of the term:

It is believed that the very word “philosophy” was first coined by Pythagoras, as reported by Diogenes Laertius. Pythagoras did not leave behind any writings, so the first author in whom the word “philosopher” appears is Heraclitus.

From Ancient Greece the term "philosophy" spread to Western and Middle Eastern countries.

In the eastern traditions, philosophy was not distinguished as a separate field of activity, and was dissolved in cultural, religious and political teachings, so that in them there are only approximate analogues of the term “philosophy”.

For example, in Indian philosophy the following terms were used: “brahma-vidya” (“knowledge of the Absolute”), “anvikshiki” (“reflective vision”), “darshana” (“theoretical vision”), “mata” (“theory”).

In Chinese Philosophy used the term “xue” (“theory”).

In Arabic In the philosophical tradition, the word “falsafa”, originating from ancient Greek, was used in two meanings: in a broad sense as “philosophy” and in a narrow sense - as the name of one specific philosophical and theological school (primarily the followers of al-Kindi). In the translations of a number of Arabic philosophical treatises, this “false friend of the translator” led to misunderstandings, of which the most famous is al-Ghazali’s book “Self-Refutation of the Philosophers” (Arabic: Tahafut al-falasifa), which is a pamphlet specifically against this particular school, and not philosophy itself (in some other works, al-Ghazali is not so critical of the “philosophers” and recognizes the significance of al-Kindi’s contribution). Oddly enough, Bertrand Russell makes this mistake in his History of Western Philosophy.

In everyday language the word "philosophy" can also mean a person's general worldview or his individual beliefs or ethics.

Philosophy and worldview

Philosophy is a worldview discipline (science), since its task is to review the world as a whole and search for answers to the most general questions.

Worldview- a system of the most general views on the world (nature and society) and the place of man in this world. In the history of mankind, a number of forms of worldview are distinguished: mythology, religion, philosophy and others.

Every philosophy is a worldview, i.e. a set of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it. However, this does not mean that every worldview is also a philosophy. The concept of “worldview” is broader than the concept of “philosophy”. This means that the first includes the second. Just as the concept of “fruit” implies, for example, not only an apple, but also a pear, cherry, etc., so the concept of “worldview” cannot be reduced only to philosophy. It includes other types of worldview - mythological, artistic, religious, etc.

Another aspect of this issue is related to the consideration of various levels of reflection of reality. Worldview and philosophy are the result of reflection of the world, but the depth of this reflection can be different. The first elementary type of reflection occurs at the level of sensations. When applied to worldview, it is associated with a worldview or worldview. Here only individual, external manifestations of existence are recorded, the world of phenomena, not entities. The next deepest levels of reflection in this regard are world perception and worldview. Here a complete picture of the world is created, the interconnection of processes and phenomena is indicated, their identities and differences are recorded. However, at this level, the worldview is limited more by sensory experience than by rational thinking; here feelings and reason still prevail over reason. And only when reflection occurs through concepts, a worldview is formed that can reveal the patterns and essence of phenomena and processes. Conceptual reflection is the deepest level of reflection associated with abstract thinking and theoretical knowledge. Worldview at this level can be called worldview. This is precisely what philosophy represents. Thus, philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, it is a theoretically formulated, systemically rational worldview. By its very essence, it is called upon to reveal the rational meaning and universal laws of the existence and development of the world and man.

Finally, let us note one more thing - the historical aspect of the distinction between philosophy and worldview. The point is that philosophy is the most recent type of worldview in historical terms, which arose after myth and religion. In this regard, it should be said that society has already managed and, generally speaking, can do without philosophy based on reason and thinking, but then its place is automatically taken by a worldview that represents either a mythological worldview or a religious worldview based on belief in the supernatural. strength. History provides the most convincing evidence of this.

Philosophy and religion

Like philosophy, religion also explores the root causes of the conceivable (God, Brahman), but in religion the emphasis is on faith, cult, revelation, and in philosophy on intellectual comprehension.

Thus, philosophy provides an additional opportunity to comprehend the meaning and understanding of the wisdom inherent in religion. In religion, faith is in the foreground, in philosophy - thought and knowledge. Religion is dogmatic, and philosophy is anti-dogmatic. In religion there is a cult, unlike philosophy.

Karl Jaspers wrote: “The sign of philosophical faith, the faith of a thinking person, is always that it exists only in union with knowledge. She wants to know what is knowable and to understand herself.”

Philosophy and religion have completely different tasks and are essentially different forms of spiritual activity. Religion is life in communion with God, with the goal of satisfying the personal need of the human soul for salvation, for finding the ultimate strength and satisfaction, unshakable peace of mind and joy. Philosophy is, in essence, the highest, completely independent of any personal interests, the final comprehension of being and life by discerning their absolute fundamental principle. But these essentially heterogeneous forms of spiritual life coincide with each other in the sense that both of them are feasible only through the focus of consciousness on the same object - on God, or more precisely, through the living, experienced discretion of God. Of course, thinking abstractly, it is possible to imagine the inverse relationship - namely, a complete divergence of ways to accomplish both tasks. Where, as, for example, in Buddhism, personal salvation is not sought through the path of communication with God and where, on the other hand, the mind strives to comprehend life and the world not from its eternal and absolute fundamental principle, there is nothing in common between religion and philosophy; They not only contradict each other, but in this case they are no more in contact with each other than, say, music and chemical analysis. But the whole point is precisely that such completely divergent paths are imaginary paths for both religion and philosophy that do not lead to the goal, and that, on the contrary, the true implementation of the tasks of both is possible only on paths leading to the same goal - to God. In relation to religion, this statement does not require, of course, special proof; We can here calmly leave it to individual paradoxists to work, contrary to universal human experience, to prove the opposite. On the contrary, in relation to philosophy this is a thesis that requires final clarification and proof, which has not yet been exhausted by previous general considerations.

Philosophical knowledge in its achievements necessarily lags behind the achievements of direct religious penetration into the depths of being. There are significant reasons for this, rooted in the very nature of both spiritual activities. First of all, religious faith, being a living, direct sensation and experience of the Divine, does not need for its achievements the hard mental work of rational explanation and substantiation of its truths. In addition, although religion, as indicated above, necessarily contains, as its main supporting point, the moment of direct personal judgment of truth, it does not at all require that this direct judgment extend to the entire content of religious faith. On the contrary, it is characteristic that this moment of immediate evidence is inherent in the perception of veracity, the unconditional truth of the source of revelation - whether that same Deity or this or that mediator between God and man - due to which the content of revelation acquires the indirect reliability of truth, communicated by a self-evidently reliable witness . Therefore, the property of personal faith can be - and even necessarily happens - the content of the conciliar religious experience, with all the achievements of religious geniuses included in its composition. This achieves the possibility of completeness, richness and depth of religious revelation, completely unattainable for philosophical knowledge. For although there are no fundamental barriers to philosophical knowledge here and the possibility of endless achievements is open, the logical unity of content required by the nature of philosophical knowledge makes it practically impossible for it to use in one system the entirety of the religious experience of mankind. Only the completeness and diversity of all philosophical achievements of human thought, in principle, can become at the level of its religious achievements, but this completeness can only be given to spiritual-historical intuition, but is not adequately expressed in any single system. A philosophical system that tries to express and logically record the entire religious experience of mankind is an idea similar to an attempt to draw a geographical map on which all the diversity of geographical reality would be marked. And here, on the other hand, we are again convinced that the correct relationship between religion and philosophy is possible only on the basis of that “wise ignorance” (docta ignorantia), which is the most mature fruit of true enlightenment. A truly philosophical frame of mind in its volitional structure coincides with a religious frame of mind: in both - contrary to superficial opinion, which seems impossible - humility is combined with the boldness of creativity, and, moreover, not in such a way that each of these volitional tendencies restrains and limits the other, but that each of them, on the contrary, nourishes and strengthens the other.

LECTURE COURSE

ON THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PHILOSOPHY

Tutorial

The textbook in 2 parts in the form of a course of lectures on the discipline “Fundamentals of Philosophy” is intended for students and teachers of secondary specialized educational institutions, for all forms of education. It is compiled in accordance with the course curriculum and takes into account the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Secondary Vocational Education in many medical specialties. The manual can be used in self-preparation for classes, exams, as well as in preparation for making up a missed lesson on a particular topic.

The material in the lectures is grouped by topic. The lectures contain an outline, a summary of questions and tasks for self-testing.

Lectures reveal the essence and analysis of philosophical categories, their basic properties and relationships.

Working on a course of lectures on the discipline “Fundamentals of Philosophy,” I tried to more fully reveal the content of philosophical thought in its historical development, and consider its current problems in the spirit of modernity.

The lectures are compiled taking into account the rejection of the ideological approach to equipping the views of thinkers and to the analysis of philosophical problems.

Life has shown that different philosophical views often complement each other and contribute to a comprehensive, in-depth consideration of scientific issues. This is the basis of creative pluralism, which has nothing to do with the mechanical combination of heterogeneous concepts and approaches in the study of the phenomena of reality.

The lectures combine historical, philosophical and problematic presentation of the material using interesting facts from the field of the latest achievements of natural and social sciences, and scientific points of view are presented.

The course “Fundamentals of Philosophy” is aimed at developing students’ thinking, at developing their own life position and worldview.

Lectures on the discipline “Fundamentals of Philosophy” are written with the aim of developing students’ ideas about philosophy as a specific field of knowledge, about philosophical, religious and scientific pictures of the world, about the nature and essence of man, about the phenomenon of consciousness, about the levels and forms of knowledge, about society and civilization .

LECTURE No. 1

Philosophy, its place and role in the life of society

Plan:

1.Philosophy and worldview.

2.Forms of spiritual exploration of the world: myth, religion, science and philosophy.

.Subject of philosophy.

.The main question of philosophy.

.Main sections and functions of philosophy.

.Philosophy as methodology.

.Philosophy and science.

1. Philosophy and worldview

Every philosophy is worldview, i.e. a set of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it. However, this does not mean that every worldview is also a philosophy. The concept of “worldview” is broader than the concept of “philosophy”. This means that the first includes the second. Just as the concept of “fruit” implies, for example, not only an apple, but also a pear, cherry, etc., so the concept of “worldview” cannot be reduced only to philosophy. It includes other worldviews - mythological, artistic, religious, etc., thus philosophy is the highest level and type of worldview, it is a theoretically formulated, systemically rational worldview. By its very essence, it is called upon to reveal the rational meaning and universal laws of the existence and development of the world and man.

2. Forms of spiritual exploration of the world: myth, religion, science and philosophy

Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. The word mythology is of Greek origin - “the science of myths.” She explores how myths arose, how they changed over time, and compares the myths of different peoples of the earth. But the word mythology has another meaning. Mythologyis a collection of myths of a particular people. A significant part of mythology consisted of cosmological myths dedicated to the structure of nature. At the same time, much attention in myths was paid to the various stages of people’s lives, the mysteries of birth and death, and all kinds of trials that await a person on his life’s path. A special place is occupied by myths about human achievements: the making of fire (the myth of Prometheus), the invention of crafts, the development of agriculture, and the taming of wild animals.

Thus, myth- this is a fantastic reflection in the primitive consciousness of reality and a justification for existing relationships, attitudes, beliefs and behavior in society.

The main function of myth- explain the world order and regulate existing social relations.

At the early stage of human history, mythology was not the only ideological form. On the basis of it, 3000 years ago, the ancient religions that still exist today arose - Buddhism, Judaism, whose homeland was India and Palestine. At the initial stage of development of society, their content largely coincides, but religion has its own specifics. It manifests itself in the presence of a system of ritual actions and church institutions aimed at establishing certain relationships with the supernatural.

Thus, religion is certain views and ideas of people associated with belief in

supernatural, corresponding rituals and cultures.

Science originated in ancient times, and has become the most important factor in life in modern times. The science- is a human activity to develop, systematize and test knowledge.

Depending on the conditions of the development of science and the demand for it, its place in certain eras changed. So, ancient sciencewas based on the experience of mathematical and astronomical research and had practical application in agriculture, construction, etc. (for example, Egyptian pyramids). During the Renaissancekeen interest in human problems contributed to the development of the humanities. A new stage in the development of science is associated with the emergence of natural science. The beginning that was laid

N. Copernicus.

Science for the first time challenged religion for its right to undividedly determine the formation of a worldview.

The next form of social consciousness is philosophy.

In the understanding of philosophy, extremes were often allowed: Aristotle believed that philosophy was the “mother of sciences.” Hegel declared her the queen of all sciences. In the middle of the century, philosophy was given the place of “the handmaiden of theology.”

· Philosophy is a special spiritual field, the “middle land” between science and religion.

· Philosophy is a special attitude, a special attitude towards the world, a special way of life.

· Philosophy is the study of methods of knowledge that all sciences use.

Thus, from the fact of the existence of many definitions of philosophy, we can draw a conclusion about the complexity and versatility of the content of philosophical knowledge. Summarizing the various points of view, we can formulate the following definition of philosophy.

Philosophyis the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society, man and thinking, which make it possible to give a picture of the world as a single whole.

3. Subject of philosophy

Philosophy originated approximately 2.5 thousand years ago in the countries of the Ancient World - India, China, Egypt, and reached its classical form in ancient Greece.

The concept of philosophy arose in Ancient Greece at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC. and means “love of wisdom” (“phileo” is translated as love, and “sophia” is wisdom). The first to use this word was the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras, who was asked if he was a sage, and the answer sounded modest: “I am not a sage, but a lover of wisdom.” Plato called philosophy a science. Philosophy occupies a special place among other sciences; it is interested in all available knowledge and builds a system of knowledge about the world as a whole and about man’s relationship to it.

The subject of philosophyare universal properties and connections (relations) inherent in both objective reality and the subjective world of man.

Philosophy considers the following fundamental problems:

· problems of the origin and existence of the world, nature, the Universe;

· the origin and essence of man, his place in the universe;

· the problem of spiritual values ​​and their relationship with the world of reality;

· the problem of good and evil, freedom and responsibility, duty, justice and the creation of a certain model of behavior by man;

· the problem of the laws of development of society, the historical process;

· the problem of the formation and development of philosophy.

Philosophy constitutes the theoretical basis of a worldview.

Worldview- this is a generalized system of a person’s views on the world as a whole, on his own place in it. Worldview can be religious or atheistic, idealistic or materialistic.

Idealism- a philosophical worldview that recognizes the spiritual principle, the idea, as the basis of the world.

Idealism and materialism do not contradict each other; they are interconnected aspects of a single process of development of philosophical knowledge.

4. The main question of philosophy

Philosophy as an established system of knowledge has a number of specific issues that it is designed to solve. We have already encountered one of these questions - this is the question "What is philosophy?". Depending on his decision, the philosopher creates his own concept, defines specific problems and uses certain categories to reveal it. Each philosophical system has a core, main question, the disclosure of which constitutes its main content and essence. So, for ancient philosophers this is a question about the fundamental principles of everything that exists; for Socrates it was associated with the principle “know yourself”; for modern philosophers - how knowledge is possible; for modern positivism - what is the essence of the “logic of scientific discovery”, etc.

But there are general questions that reveal the nature of philosophical thinking. First of all, among them should be mentioned the question of whether What comes first: spirit or matter, ideal or material?His decision depends general understanding of existence, because the material and the ideal are its ultimate characteristics. In other words, apart from the material and the ideal, there is simply nothing in existence. In addition, depending on its decision, such major philosophical trends are distinguished as materialismAnd idealism. A number of categories and principles are formulated that contribute to the disclosure of philosophy as a general methodology of knowledge.

Let us dwell in more detail on the question of materialism and idealism.

The division into these directions existed from the very beginning of the development of philosophy. German philosopher of the 17th-18th centuries. Leibniz called Epicurus the greatest materialist, Plato the greatest idealist. The classical definition of both directions was first given by the prominent German philosopher F. Hegel “ Materialism,- he wrote, - he explains everything from matter, accepts matter as something first primordial, as the source of all things... Idealismdeduces everything from one spirit, explains the emergence of matter from spirit or subordinates matter to it.” Thus, the philosophical meaning of the concepts “materialist” and “idealist” should not be confused with the one that is often given to them in everyday consciousness, when a materialist is meant as an individual striving only to achieve material wealth, and an idealist is associated with an unselfish person characterized by sublime spiritual values ​​and ideals.

Both materialism and idealism are heterogeneous in their specific manifestations. In accordance with this, various forms of materialism and idealism can be distinguished. Thus, from the point of view of the historical development of materialism, the following main forms can be noted. Materialism of the Ancient EastAnd Ancient Greece- this is the original form of materialism, within which objects and the surrounding world are considered in themselves, regardless of consciousness, as consisting of material formations and elements (Thales, Leucippus, Democritus, Heraclitus, etc.). Metaphysical (mechanistic) materialism of the New Age in Europe. It is based on the study of nature. However, all the diversity of its properties and relationships is reduced to the mechanical form of the movement of matter (G. Galileo, F. Bacon, J. Locke, J. La Mettrie, C. Helvetius, etc.). Dialectical materialism, in which materialism and dialectics are presented in organic unity (K. Marx, F. Engels, etc.).

There are also such varieties of materialism as, for example, consistent materialism,within which the principle of materialism extends to both nature and society (Marxism), and inconsistent materialism, in which there is no materialistic understanding of society and history (L. Feuerbach).

A specific form of inconsistent materialism is deism (from the Latin dues - god), whose representatives, although they recognized God, sharply belittled his functions, reducing them to the creation of matter and imparting to it the initial impulse of movement (F. Bacon, J. Toland, B Franklin, M.V. Lomonosov, etc.). Next, they distinguish scientificAnd vulgar materialism. The latter, in particular, reduces the ideal to the material, and identifies consciousness with matter (Vogt, Moleschott, Büchner).

Like materialism, idealism is also heterogeneous. First of all, two main types should be distinguished: objective idealismAnd subjective idealism. The first proclaims the independence of the idea, God, spirit - in general, the ideal principle, not only from matter, but also from human consciousness (Plato, F. Aquinas, Hegel).

The second is characterized by the fact that it asserts the dependence of the external world, its properties and relationships on human consciousness (J. Berkeley). The extreme form of subjective idealism is solipsism(from Latin solus - one, only and ipse - himself). According to the latter, we can only talk about the existence of my own Self and my sensations.

Within the framework of these forms of idealism, there are various varieties of it. Let us note in particular, rationalismAnd irrationalism. According to idealistic rationalism, the basis of all existence and its knowledge is reason. One of its most important areas is pangolism(from the Greek pan - everything and logos - mind), according to which everything real is the embodiment of reason, and the laws of being are determined by the laws of logic (Hegel). Point of view irrationalism(from Lat. Irrationalis - unreasonable, unconscious) consists in denying the possibility of rational and logical knowledge of reality. The main type of knowledge here is instinct, faith, revelation, etc., and being itself is considered irrational (S. Kierkegaard, A. Bergson, M. Heidegger, etc.).

To adequately understand the specifics of philosophical knowledge, it is also necessary to raise the question on the relationship and nature of the interaction between materialism and idealism. In particular, two extreme views should be avoided here. One of them is that there is a constant “struggle” between materialism and idealism, the “line of Democritus” and the “line of Plato” throughout the history of philosophy. According to the other, “the history of philosophy in its essence was not a history at all strugglematerialism versus idealism..." In our opinion, such a “struggle,” and quite a conscious one, certainly took place in the history of philosophy. It is enough to recall the confrontation between materialism and idealism in the ancient period or the militant idealism of Berkeley in modern times, or, finally, you can pay attention to the position of “militant materialism” in our century. But at the same time, this “struggle” should not be absolutized and should not be assumed that it always and everywhere determines the development of philosophy. Pointing out the complexity of the relationship between materialism and idealism, the famous Russian philosopher V.V. Sokolov writes: “The difficulty lies in the fact that materialism and idealism did not always constitute two “mutually impenetrable camps,” but in solving some issues they came into contact and even crossed paths.” An example of the combination of materialism and idealism is the position of deism. It is no coincidence that thinkers of both materialistic (F. Bacon, J. Locke), idealistic (G. Leibniz), and dualistic (R. Descartes) directions adhered to deism. But the unity of the positions of materialism and idealism is revealed even more clearly in the solution of the question of the knowability of the world. Thus, agnostics and skeptics were both in the camp of materialism (Democritus) and idealism (Kant), and the principle of the knowability of the world was defended not only by materialists (Marxism), but also by idealists (Hegel).

The question of primordial being is also related to the question of monism, dualism and pluralism. Monism(from the Greek monus - one, only) - a philosophical concept according to which the world has one beginning. Such a beginning is a material or spiritual substance. It follows that monism can, accordingly, be of two types - materialisticAnd idealistic. The first derives the ideal from the material. His conclusions are based on natural science data. According to the second, the material is conditioned by the ideal, the spiritual. He is faced with the problem of proving the creation of the world by spirit (consciousness, idea, God), which cannot be positively resolved within the framework of modern science.

Dualism- (from Latin dualis - dual) - a philosophical doctrine that asserts the equality of two principles: matter and consciousness, physical and mental. So, for example, R. Descartes believed that the basis of existence are two equal substances: thinking (spirit) and extended (matter).

Pluralism(from Latin pluralis - multiple) - suggests several or many initial bases. It is based on the statement about the plurality of foundations and principles of being. An example here is the theories of ancient thinkers, who put forward such diverse principles as earth, water, air, fire, etc. as the basis of all things.

Related to the question of the origins of all things is the question of the knowability of the world, or the identity of thinking and being. Some thinkers believed that the question of the truth of knowledge cannot be finally resolved, and moreover, the world is fundamentally unknowable. They are called agnostics (Protagoras, Kant), and the philosophical position they represent is agnosticism (from the Greek agnostos - unknowable). A negative answer to this question was also given by representatives of a direction related to agnosticism - skepticism, who denied the possibility of reliable knowledge. It found its highest manifestation in some representatives of ancient Greek philosophy (Pyrrho and others). Other thinkers, on the contrary, believe in the strength and power of reason and knowledge and affirm man's ability to obtain reliable knowledge, objective truth.

5. Main sections and functions of philosophy

1. Ontology- the doctrine of existence, its structure and development

2. Anthropology- the doctrine of the nature and essence of man

3. Axiology- the doctrine of spiritual values ​​and their relationship with the real world.

4. Ethics- the doctrine of moral values ​​and moral principles

5. Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge

6. Sociology- the doctrine of the origin and development of human society

7. History of philosophy- the doctrine of the origin and development of philosophy

Philosophy performs the following main functions:

1. Worldview function- is to imagine the world as a whole,

give an overall picture of the world.

2. Epistemological function- consists in solving the problem of the cognizability of the world by man, the problem of truth and its criteria.

3. Methodological function- consists in the development of general, justification of particular and general scientific methods of cognition.

4. Axiological function- is expressed in its orientation towards certain values.

5. Integrating function- consists in generalizing the conclusions of special sciences, combining them on the basis of their categories and methods of cognition.

6. Critical function- subjects to critical assessment everything that corresponds to a particular philosophical system.

The purpose of philosophy- to take a person out of the sphere of everyday life, to captivate him with the highest ideals, to give his life true meaning, to open the way to the most perfect values.

Purpose of philosophyconsists in the elevation of man, in providing universal conditions for his improvement. We can say that philosophy is nothing more than a strategy for life - the doctrine of “what you need to be to be a person.”

6. Philosophy as methodology

Every science has its own method. However, philosophy acts as the most general methodology, and this is the essence of its own method. It can be said that philosophical method(from the Greek methodos - the path of knowledge) is a system of the most general techniques for the theoretical and practical development of reality, as well as a way of constructing and justifying the system of philosophical knowledge itself. Like the methods of other sciences, it originates in the practical activities of people and at its source is a reflection of the logic and patterns of development of objective reality. This applies, of course, only to a philosophy that is based on science.

The philosophical method sets the general principles of research and, according to F. Bacon, is comparable to a torch lighting the way. However, different philosophical schools and directions, in accordance with their specificity and understanding of the subject of philosophy, formulate and use different philosophical methods. The pluralism of philosophical concepts corresponds to the pluralism of methods. What they all have in common is theoretical thinking, expressed in philosophical categories, principles and laws.

Moving on to a more specific consideration of the question of methods of philosophy, we should first of all point out materialismAnd idealism. Their contents were discussed above. In this aspect, one should pay attention to the fact that they act as the most general approaches and methods of consideration and cognition. From the very beginning, the theory of knowledge is largely determined by what is taken as primary: matter or consciousness, spirit or nature, i.e. materialistic or idealistic premises. In the first case, the general process of cognition is considered as a reflection of objective reality in consciousness; in the second - as self-knowledge of consciousness, the absolute idea originally present in things (objective idealism), or as an analysis of our own sensations (subjective idealism). In other words, ontology largely determines epistemology.

The next aspect of differentiation of philosophical methods is dialecticsAnd metaphysics. By dialectics we mean, first of all, the doctrine of the most general laws of development of being and knowledge; at the same time, it also acts as a general method of mastering reality. Although this understanding of her was not always the case. The origin and beginning of the formation of dialectics is associated with the period of antiquity. This stage is often characterized as spontaneous, or naive, dialectics, bearing in mind, first of all, that the views of the first philosophers on the world were largely naive. But at the same time, they viewed it impartially, in development and movement. However, it should be noted that even then different understandings of dialectics were revealed.

Thus, the materialist Heraclitus in his teaching draws attention to the constant movement and change of the world, to the mutual transition of opposites in it, i.e. first of all, on the “dialectics of things”, on objective dialectics. The idealists Socrates and Plato, who lived during the same period, understood dialectics as the art of arguing and dialogue with the goal of clarifying concepts and achieving truth. Here we are talking about the “dialectics of concepts” about subjective dialectics.

Thus, dialectics is in principle compatible with both materialism and idealism. In the first case, it acts as materialist dialectics, in the second - how idealistic dialectic. The classic representative of idealistic dialectics (as well as dialectical idealism) is G.V.F. Hegel, who created the system of dialectics as a theory and method of knowledge. And the classics of materialist dialectics (as well as dialectical materialism) are K. Marx and F. Engels, who gave it a holistic and scientific character.

Dialectics arose and developed along with metaphysicsas the opposite way of thinking and knowing. Its peculiarity is the tendency to create an unambiguous, static picture of the world, the desire for absolutization and isolated consideration of certain moments or fragments of existence. The metaphysical method is characterized by the fact that it considers objects and processes according to one principle: either yes or no; either white or black; either friend or enemy, etc. In social practice, this corresponds to the well-known slogan: “Whoever is not with us is against us.” When considering movement, metaphysics tends to reduce its diverse forms to one. Moreover, the reduction of the highest form of motion of matter to the lowest is more often observed. For example, modern materialism was characterized by the reduction of various forms of matter movement to mechanical. That's why he got the name mechanistic materialism, which, in turn, is a manifestation of metaphysical materialism.

It should be noted, however, that the method of cognition itself, which involves the consideration of objects and phenomena in static, rest, and thereby the “coarsening”, “simplification” of being in constant change, has every right to exist. The method of abstraction that is used is quite scientific and is used by various disciplines. And if motion is not forgotten behind the peace, dynamics behind the statics, and the forest behind the trees, then such an element of metaphysics is simply necessary in cognition, for it acts as a necessary moment of dialectical cognition. a methodological error arises when this moment of peace or any one characteristic, side of the subject of research is torn out of the general interconnection and interdependence and elevated to an absolute. This, by the way, is the epistemological roots of all one-sided theoretical concepts. Their essence is that the ideal factor (thought, consciousness, idea) is separated from the material, absolutized and opposed to the material as an absolutely autonomous demiurge (creator) of existence. At the same time, it is forgotten that, in the end, ideal thinking arises on the basis of the material.

It should be noted, however, that a disservice to cognition is rendered not only by the absolutization of rest, but also by the absolutization of its opposite - movement. Both are expressions of the metaphysical method of research. And if in the first case we take the path leading to dogmatism, then in the second - on the path leading to absolutism relativism. For true dialectics there is not only rest without movement, but also movement without relative rest.

In addition to these methods, philosophy includes others.

Let us note some of them that, in our opinion, are of greatest importance. Sensationalism(from Lat. sensus - feeling) - a methodological principle in which feelings are taken as the basis of knowledge and which seeks to derive all knowledge from the activities of the senses, sensations, absolutizing their role in knowledge (Epicure, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Holbach, Feuerbach and etc.).

Rationalism(from Latin ratio - reason) - a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action is reason (Spinoza, Leibniz, Descartes, Hegel, etc.).

Irrationalism- a philosophical method that denies or at least limits the role of reason in knowledge, and focuses on irrational ways of comprehending being (Schopenhauer, Kierkergaard, Nietzsche, Bergson, Heidegger, etc.).

The rapid development of science and knowledge in recent decades has led to the understanding of methodology as a specialized field of knowledge. Within its framework, internal mechanisms, logic and organization of knowledge are explored. In particular, the criteria for scientific knowledge are considered, the language of science is analyzed, the logic and growth of scientific knowledge, the structure of scientific revolutions, and others are traced.

All of these philosophical methods are in a dialectical relationship with each other and form an integral system, due to which philosophy acts as a general methodologyknowledge and exploration of the world. But along with this, philosophy appears, as already mentioned, as a special theory, which has its own categories, laws and principles of research. These two qualities of philosophy are closely interrelated. Philosophical theory, due to the universality of its provisions, laws and principles, acts at the same time as a methodology for other sciences. However, these two qualities of philosophy should not be confused.

7. Philosophy and science

When considering the question of the relationship between philosophy and science, there are at least three aspects of its interpretation: 1) whether philosophy is a science; 2) interaction between philosophy and private (concrete) sciences; 3) the relationship between philosophy and non-scientific knowledge.

The first aspect, in our opinion, cannot be denied the scientific nature of philosophy in general as one of the powerful streams of development of human knowledge and culture. And if we approach it not only from the side of specific concepts, but consider it from the perspective of history, then we can discover continuity in the development of philosophical knowledge, its problematics, the commonality of the categorical apparatus and the logic of research. It is no coincidence that Hegel viewed philosophy primarily from the point of view of “ Scienceslogic."

The conclusions obtained within the framework of philosophy serve not only as a means of obtaining scientific knowledge, but are themselves included in the content of science. It is no coincidence that many prominent scientists in the field of specific sciences are also prominent representatives of philosophy. It is enough to name the names of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Bruno, Copernicus, Descartes, Marx, Freud, Russell and many others. Philosophy has its own specific language and its own categorical apparatus. It carries out a scientific search and therefore has a scientific character. To this, perhaps, it is necessary to add only one clarification - when it is based on a system of scientific knowledge.

Second aspect - interaction between philosophy and private (concrete) sciences.Naturally, modern philosophy can no longer claim to be the science of sciences and include all knowledge. Specific sciences have their own subject of research, their own laws and methods, and their own level of generalization of knowledge. Philosophy makes the subject of its analysis generalizations of particular sciences, i.e. she deals with higher, secondary level of generalization. If the primary level leads to the formulation of laws of specific sciences, then the task of the second level is to identify more general patterns and trends. The main method of philosophy in this case is theoretical thinking, based on the achievements of particular sciences, of course, if the philosophy itself claims to be scientific. Major discoveries in specific sciences also contributed to the intensive development of philosophy. It is enough to point out the enormous influence that the successes of natural science had in modern times, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. for the development of philosophical knowledge. It must be borne in mind that new discoveries in the field of special sciences can lead to the approval of scientific and philosophical conclusions, both of realistic philosophy and of the philosophical branch that represents irrationalistic speculation.

However, philosophy not only experiences influence from the private sciences, but also itself has an impact on their development, and again, both positive and negative. Philosophy, of course, is not called upon to make any discoveries of a natural scientific nature. Its influence is carried out through a philosophical worldview, which in one way or another affects the initial positions of the scientist, his attitude to the world and knowledge, as well as his attitude to the need to develop a particular field of knowledge (for example, nuclear physics, eugenics, genetic engineering, etc.) .P.). The interdependence of philosophy and special sciences was well expressed by I.V. Goethe. “You cannot demand from a physicist,” he wrote, “that he be a philosopher; but... he must be familiar with the work of the philosopher in order to bring phenomena up to the philosophical field. A philosopher cannot be required to be a physicist, and yet his influence on the field of physics is both necessary and desirable. For this he does not need particulars, he only needs an understanding of those final points where these particulars converge.”

Finally, the third aspect - philosophy and non-scientific knowledge. At the same time, we will divide non-scientific knowledge, with a certain degree of convention, into misconceptionsassociated with the research of people who are convinced that they are creating genuine science, and parascience(anti-science, pseudoscience, “alternative science”), which includes such “sciences” as astrology, occult “sciences,” magic, witchcraft, etc.

Talking about ratio philosophyAnd "misguided mind", we should, in our opinion, consider the latter as a moment in the development of scientific knowledge and philosophy. Moreover, from a historical point of view, this moment is necessary due to the very nature of the process of cognition, and it is characteristic of any science. Philosophy also cannot be guaranteed against error.

The relationship between philosophy and parascience. Note that some authors, especially this concerns representatives and adherents of the concept "postmodernism"call for the use of any teachings, including mysticism, superstition, magic, astrology, etc. as long as they have a therapeutic effect on today's sick society and individuals. They believe that the status of the scientific worldview in modern society is no higher than that of any functional myth, and essentially advocate unlimited ideological pluralism. However, such a position of absolute neutrality of the scientific worldview towards pseudoscience leads to intellectual anarchism. Moreover, with this approach of the scientific community to pseudoscience, which is expanding in the modern world, we may soon be witnessing the victory of superstition over the scientific worldview.

It must be said that the influence of parascience is greatest precisely at critical moments in the development of society and the individual. This is because parascience actually performs some psycho- and intellectual-therapeutic function, and serves as a certain means of adaptation to life during a period of social and individual instability. After all, in difficult times it is always easier to turn to God, an astrologer, a sorcerer, etc. than to reason and a scientific worldview, for hope in transcendental forces is associated only with faith and expectation from above of some kind of God. And this frees the individual from the need to make his own, sometimes difficult, choices and from responsibility for the state of affairs, and it is relatively easier to provide spiritual comfort. Meanwhile, strict scientific conclusions addressed to the mind and conscience of the individual bring happiness and peace of mind to few people, because they place responsibility for actions on the person himself.

As for rationalistic and scientific philosophy, its status, general cultural significance and educational function, in our opinion, are incompatible with the pseudoscientific nonsense that constantly befalls modern man. This requires representatives of this philosophy to more actively disseminate the scientific worldview. And the point here is not some ideological ambitions, but the fact that ignoring the scientific worldview can lead to dangerous social consequences. This danger increases many times over when there is a union of political power and parascience. Examples here include the Inquisition, religious fanaticism, fundamentalism, fascism, and, as is well known to our readers, Lysenkoism, persecution of cybernetics, genetics, etc. Therefore, the modern scientific and cultural-intellectual community should not look at the dominance of pseudoscience with a condescending grin, because in this case it smiles at its own moral inferiority.

Self-test questions:

1.What are the specifics of philosophical knowledge in accordance with other forms of world exploration?

2.What is the history of philosophy

.What is the subject of philosophy

.List the main philosophical problems

.Describe the functions of philosophy

6.Make a table reflecting the main elements of the structure of philosophy in the following form:

Main problems philosophySections of philosophyDefinitions of basic sections123

Abstract topics:

1.Myth as a form of worldview

2.Features of the religious worldview

.The relationship between philosophy and science

LECTURE No. 2

Historical types of philosophy

Plan:

1.Ancient philosophy.

2.Medieval philosophy.

.Renaissance philosophy

.Philosophy of the New Age.

.Modern Western philosophy.

.Russian philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries.

.Philosophical views of I.P. Pavlova, I.I. Mechnikova, V.M. Bekhterev.

1. Ancient philosophy (VI century BC, IV century AD)

The development of European philosophy began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century. BC. There are three main stages in the history of ancient Greek philosophy:

Stage I - natural philosophy(VI century BC). Its specificity is the desire to understand the essence of nature, the world, and the cosmos as a whole. The main question was about the beginning of the world, where did everything come from?

Thales, the founder of ancient Greek philosophy, considered water to be such a first principle, “Everything came from water.” Anaximenes - air, Anaximander - apeiron - a certain boundless, eternal beginning, Heraclitus - fire, Pythagoras - number, Democritus - an indivisible atom.

Heraclitus is one of the founders of dialectics - the doctrine of the development of society and nature. He owns the saying: “Everything flows, everything changes, you cannot step into the same river twice.”

Stage II - intellectualism (classical)(V-IV centuries BC). At this stage there is a transition from a primary study of nature to a consideration of man. The founder of this stage was Socrates(469-399 BC) - teacher Plato,refused to study nature and space, because

1. Philosophers are confused in their contradictions.
2. The subject of knowledge can only be that which is in the power of man, i.e. his soul.

"Speak so I can see you"

"Know yourself". The main subject of philosophy is ethics. Right action must be based on right knowledge. The basis of ethics was epistemology. vices stem from ignorance. Prometheus gave people fire and reason, and Zeus gave them shame and truth, because... without this they could not live together. The most valuable quality is virtue. In order to be virtuous, you need to know what virtue is.

Socratic conversations. A series of questions during which contradictions in the interlocutor’s reasoning were revealed. The method of “irony” (subjective dialectics). And then Socrates revealed this contradiction, helped the listeners “to be born to a new life (maeutics - midwifery art), to the knowledge of the universal - as the basis of morality."

The initial beginning of knowledge is irony. “All I know is that I don’t know anything.”

A person draws knowledge from himself.

“The task of philosophy is to help a person be born into a new life, to become more intelligent.”

Three basic human virtues:

1. Moderation (knowing how to curb passions).
2. Courage (knowing how to overcome danger).
3. Justice (knowing how to obey the law).

Fellow citizens did not accept Socrates. He was accused of corrupting youth with his reasoning. Arrested and imprisoned to scare and force him to emigrate from Athens. Friends are preparing to escape. But he refused and took poison. “A true philosopher must live in accordance with his teaching.”

Ancient Greek philosopher was a student of Socrates Plato(427-374 BC)

In the dialogue “Theaetetus” he writes: “The true philosopher should not deal with the real sensory world, but rise to the otherworldly, eternal world of ideas.”

Created a school on Mount Akadema. The Academy existed for 1000 years.

Two worlds:

The first is the world of ideas (eidos) - real, permanent, perfect.

The second is the world of things, changeable.

“People see objects and do not see their ideas; they mistake shadows for the real world.” Many have “cave knowledge of shadows”, i.e. everyday experience and nothing more.

Just as a sensory object, a concept corresponds to a special object - an idea (einos - view). There was a bifurcation of the world into the sensual and the ideal.

For Plato, matter is the primary material from which, in some amazing way, all existing things are made. Matter is a possibility, not an actuality.

Many ideas make up one, which is the highest being and is identical to the highest good.

Plato's theory of knowledge

The human soul is close to the world of ideas and gives him all knowledge, because... contains them in a hidden form. The soul exists forever, it transmigrates.

The task of knowledge is for a person to remember. Objects of the sensory world are reasons for arousing memories (learning a concept using a human example). You need to discard nature and go deeper into yourself.

Cosmology.The world is in eternal divine harmony, thanks to God.

Ethics.The condition of morality is the knowledge that the soul possesses. The soul consists of three parts:

1. Reasonable
2. Ardent (strong-willed)
3. Lustful

The combination of these parts under the guidance of reason gives rise to a person's character.

If the rational part predominates, then these people strive to contemplate the beauty of ideas, strive for eternal good: truth, justice and moderation in everything. These are the sages. If the affective part of the soul takes over, then these people are distinguished by noble passions - courage, courage, a sense of duty. These are warriors.

People of the “lusting” type should engage in physical labor, because... initially committed to the corporeally physical world. These are peasants and artisans. But the entire class must have a common virtue - measure. “Nothing in excess.”

The soul makes a person human. She is connected to the world of ideas and sometimes remembers what she saw there.

Public views. The state must maintain the measure of happiness of social groups and prevent transition to other groups (“State”). The state must patronize religion.

Negative types of states:

1. Timocracy is the power of an ambitious person, based on the desire for enrichment.
2. Oligarchy is the rule of the few over the many. The rich rule.
3. Democracy - all contradictions are resolved by uprisings. If the poor win, the rich are exterminated and power is divided.
4. Tyranny is the degeneration of democracy. In order for the people to feel the need for war, wars are needed. Ideal states: the power of the few, but the capable and prepared. The main thing is justice, i.e. everyone has a special occupation and a special position. Virtues in an ideal state:
5. Wisdom
6. Courage
7. Deterrent measure
8. Justice

The pinnacle of the development of ancient Greek philosophy was the teaching of Plato's student, Aristotle(384-322 BC), “Alexander the Great of Greek Philosophy.” In Athens he opened a school near the Lyceum Temple (Lyceum).

He gave a classification of sciences: theoretical - knowledge for the sake of knowledge, practical - they give ideas for human behavior, creative - knowledge with the aim of realizing something beautiful.

Logic is a tool of knowledge, an introduction to philosophy.

Everything exists as a single, individual, perceived by human senses. But the world should be studied in its unity and necessity. Studies the basic forms of being and general logical concepts (categories). The main category is essence. It is the basis to which all other properties belong.

Aristotle's Genesis

• a system of categories, interconnected, mobile, fluid. Matter is the substratum of every thing from which something arises. It is eternal and indestructible. There is no matter in its pure form, without form. Matter is possibility and form is reality. Entelechy is the realization of a thing in movement from matter to form.

Movement: -“There are no movements apart from things.” Movement is a process

transforming the potential into the actual (the process of turning copper into a statue).

The doctrine of matter, energy, form and entelechy underlies the doctrine of cause.

1. Emergence.
2. Destruction.
3. Height.
4. Decrease.
5. Qualitative changes.
6. Change in space.

Peace is a state where there is no violence or contrary to nature.

The soul is the beginning of life. “Types” of soul:

• plant - in charge of the functions of nutrition, growth, reproduction. Common to all animate beings.
• animal - manifests itself in feelings, desires, i.e. striving for the pleasant and avoiding the unpleasant.
• rational soul - a person has the ability to think. In man, only the mind is immortal, which after the death of the body merges with the world mind.

The world mind is a leader, an active mind. unlike human

passive, perceiving mind. The “First Mover” is God. God is the mind, the thought that sculpts itself.”

Cognition process:Body - external stimulation - sensation - imagination - thinking. The object of knowledge is the real world. Nature is primary. Aristotle is a sensualist. Thinking is studied by logic. The order of things in nature is the supreme law for the combination of concepts in judgments. But concepts can be combined subjectively, which leads to error, and objectively - to truth.

Contemplation is the highest form of knowledge and leisure. Social views - man is a political being with an instinct for living together. For a slave, the body comes first, for a free person, the soul comes first. The soul dominates the body. The state is created to live happily. The ideal state is based on private ownership of land, tools and slaves. The state must educate young people. The creator of society is the middle class.

Aristotle developed a typology of states:

1. Correct:
2. royal power (one for the benefit of all) monarchy
3. aristocracy - the rule of a few in the interests of society
4. polity - majority rule, selected based on a certain qualification.
5. Incorrect:
6. tyranny (one for one's own interests)
7. oligarchy (a little for its own sake)
8. democracy (the majority of the poor only for their own interests).

The best is polity.

Introduces the concept of “average form” of states:

• in morals - moderation
• in property - wealth
• in power is the middle class.

The concept of “fairness”:

a) equalizing - source - law

b) distributive - from the contribution of everyone

Man is a social animal, endowed with reason, and by his nature is intended to live in society. Only in society can morality be formed. Anyone who is not able to answer for his actions, is not able to become his own master, cannot cultivate moderation in self-denial and other virtues, is a slave by nature and can only carry out the will of another.

Stage III - Hellenistic(IV century BC - II century AD). During the Hellenistic period, philosophy focused its interest on the life of the individual. At this time, several philosophical schools emerged:

7. StoicsThey saw the main task of philosophy in the healing of moral illnesses and the cultivation of virtue. The true value of a person is in his virtue, but it does not depend on origin, but depends on the personality of her will.

8. Epicureans -followers of the philosopher Epicurus. Epicurus saw the meaning of philosophy in the fact that by understanding the nature of the Universe, the human mind, and society, a person finds peace and happiness. A reasonable, moral and fair life is a happy life.

9. Cynics. The most prominent representative of the ancient Greek philosophical school was Diogenesfrom Sinope. He rejected all the achievements of civilizations and called for limiting ourselves to satisfying only the necessary needs to be closer to nature. He criticized class differences, despised luxury and the desire for pleasure. Diogenes expressed the interests of the democratic strata of the slave-owning society.

10. Skepticsrejected the knowability of life. The ancient skeptic lives as he wants, avoids the need to evaluate anything. His silence is a philosophical answer to the questions put to him. By refraining from making certain judgments, the skeptic remains equanimous.

Conclusion: Thus, ancient philosophy is cosmocentric.

Cosmocentrism- is a philosophical ideological principle, the content of which was the desire to understand the world as a whole, its origin and essence.

2. Medieval philosophy (V-XV centuries)

Medieval philosophy is based on Christian beliefs. The Church was in those days the focus and center of spiritual culture and education. Philosophy acted as the “handmaiden of theology.” The vast majority of philosophers of that time were members of the clergy.

There are two stages in the history of medieval philosophy:

Stage I - patristics(V-VIII centuries) from the word pater - father, meaning “father of the Church”. the main representative of patristics is Augustine (354 - 430)

One of the most revered by the official Catholic Church, Augustine, nicknamed “Blessed,” spoke of most of the great past scientists and philosophers as vain people who glorified lies and deceit. Before becoming a Christian (387), Augustine was successively influenced by skeptics and platonists. These influences left a deep imprint on his worldview. The most important of his works are “On the Immortality of the Soul”, “On Free Will”, “On Christian Science”, “Confession”, “On the City of God”.

Augustine the Blessed:

Formulated evidence of God through the existence of a super-perfect being.

Developed the doctrine of divine grace and divine predestination.

In his treatise “On the City of God,” he put forward the idea of ​​the church’s right to coercion in matters of faith.

Finding no signs of the existence of God and opportunities for his knowledge in the sensory, objective world surrounding man, Augustine turns to identifying the internal characteristics of man and assumes that man consists of body and soul, “one outside, the other inside.” Since he was unable to find God outside of man, he searches for him within himself: “People go to be amazed at the height of the mountains, and the huge waves of the sea, and the greatest waterfalls, and the vastness of the ocean, and the flow of the stars, but do not pay attention to themselves.”

Augustine's ideas

1. About the essence of God. God is the highest being, the highest good. Although God is inaccessible to knowledge, he reveals himself to man, including in the sacred texts of the Bible. Knowledge about God can be obtained supernaturally; the key to it is faith, as a faculty of the soul. The formula: “Being and goodness are reversible” confirms that God is the highest being and goodness and all his creations are good. Evil is non-existence. The devil is non-existence hiding behind being. Evil lives by good, which means good rules the world. Although evil diminishes, it cannot destroy good. “The same power tests and cleanses the good, but devastates, eradicates, weeds out the evil.” ("Confession").

1.About nature. Nature is not sufficient for itself; man is called upon to be its master, to command the elements. Phenomena do not reveal themselves, but are for man a lesson in the wisdom of God.

2.About the will and reason of man. God has free will, and in man the will comes to the fore. All people are nothing more than will. Reason is the gaze of the soul. A person knows good, but the will does not obey him, and he does what he would not like to do. “I approved one thing, but followed another” (“Confession”). This split is a disease of the soul, insubordinate to itself without the help of God.

Photographer Chris Wells

Initially considering all areas of the study of reality and giving rise to specific sciences, including physics, geometry, chemistry and others, philosophy concentrated on its specific areas of research. The foundations of philosophy are based on fields and disciplines of study, approaches to research, and methods for searching, verifying, and integrating information. The foundations of philosophy are its disciplines, which I mentioned in other articles, I will focus on the areas:

• Material reality is that objective that surrounds a person, excluding himself. Knowledge of this area by the sciences of natural science is supplemented by special methods of philosophy;
• Metaphysical reality is a unique area of ​​philosophy, the study of which only this science deals with due to the characteristics of the object and subject of study, which is in principle inaccessible to many sciences;
• The socio-public area is currently considered in conjunction with a number of humanities and individual disciplines of philosophy;
• The general and particular area of ​​human attitudes is a complex of complex connections between a specific individual and groups of humanity, studied by philosophy together with other sciences.

Of course, these are not all areas of interest in the foundations of philosophy; they are also classified according to their focus - theoretical and practical. The close relationship between different disciplines constitutes the theoretical foundations of philosophy, which combine their approaches, conceptual apparatus, methodology and historical authorities.

The latter is the peculiarity of philosophy - the ability to compile and extensively effectively cover knowledge in any field, be it an approach from the general to the particular (analysis), or from the particular to the general (synthesis).

Basics of philosophy in brief

The theoretical foundations of philosophy, among other things, are based on the difference between the philosophical, and later scientific, worldview from the mythological and religious. If in the mythological and religious worldview the world around us was described on the basis of impressions and faith in irrational theories, then the philosophical worldview has a rational, theoretically and empirically based structure based on reliable experience.

The philosophical worldview is based on three directions of explanation:

• Cosmocentrism is based on infinity, complexity and the pervasive influence of the surrounding reality (from the Greek cosmos - universe, space);
• Theocentrism sees the most important influence of the transcendental mind(s) on all things, in other words we are talking about gods (from the Greek theos - God);
• Anthropocentrism sees man as a measure and standard, a generator of criteria and assigns him the most important role (from the Greek anthropos - Human).

The main difference between the theory of philosophy and other scientific knowledge is the bias towards the theoretical part, in contrast to the prevailing empirical in other sciences; but this does not mean that experimental, and previously sensory, research is absent in philosophy. If the latter were not so, then natural sciences, such as, for example, physics or chemistry, would not have been formed from philosophy.

The foundations of philosophy are a theoretical understanding of all previously accumulated knowledge, reflection taking into account what has been learned, and the utmost compilation of data. But despite this, philosophy has its own methods, subjects, objects, scientific questions, directions, problems, conceptual apparatus and other things inherent in the natural sciences.

Crafts for the New Year always bring joy. And it doesn’t matter whether you make a large panel with a beautiful landscape or give a miniature postcard with an embroidered picture - all the same, the recipient will be incredibly happy that you paid attention to him.

Every person understands that a homemade gift is much better than one bought in a store. In any case, it is several times more pleasant. Today we want to introduce you to one interesting way that allows you to make amazing New Year's gifts in just a few minutes.

Crafts using quilling technique for New Year 2017 will allow you to feel an indescribable calming effect, and will also appeal to all the guests gathered at the holiday.

What is quilling?

For those who do not know what the quilling technique is, I would like to give a short excursion. This type of needlework is considered very simple, but at the same time, very beautiful. Quilling does not require expensive tools and materials. All you need to work is a good mood, an interesting idea and time.

When creating compositions, paper strips with a width of 3, 4, 6 and 10 mm are used. There can be several devices for twisting.

There are professional curling machines that are sold in specialized stores, as well as improvised tools, such as a tapestry needle with a large eye and a round wooden stick 10 cm long.

It is also advisable to stock up on tweezers with flat tips. It is needed to hold the paper blank, apply glue to it and stick it to the surface.

As for other devices that are necessary for working with the quilling technique, they can be found in any home. These are scissors (preferably with sharp ends), a ruler, toothpicks, PVA glue.

If you decide to seriously engage in this type of needlework, then stores sell entire sets that include all the necessary tools and you do not have to assemble them separately.

Ideas for crafts in the style of quilling for the New Year

When deciding to make such a New Year's surprise for someone close to you, you must understand what or who you will glue from strips of paper. There are a huge number of themed crafts on the Internet and sometimes it’s hard to figure out which one you like best.

Among such abundance, you can choose the main “figurants” that you might like - these are Christmas trees, snowflakes and cockerels. The last craft will be not only a wonderful, but also an appropriate gift, because 2017 is the year of the Fire Rooster. So your Petya, made using the quilling technique, will look nice under the Christmas tree.

"Bright Cockerel"

It would seem impossible to create such wonderful pictures and figures from ordinary strips of paper. But as practice shows, the main thing is perseverance and a little imagination, and the rest is a matter of little things. If you decide to make a cockerel for the New Year 2017, then choose the ideal example for yourself (photos are presented below), stock up on all the necessary materials and get down to business.

Examples of how to make a New Year's rooster can be found in any format and size. These can be either free-standing figures or the silhouette of a bird.

There are quite a few basic forms for quilling that help you create real masterpieces from paper. The picture clearly shows how this or that curl should look.

Go for it! You will succeed, and after a while you will be able to present a cute panel or a wonderful picture with a cockerel in the title role.

Original snowflake

The most common decoration for the New Year holiday are snowflakes. We hang them on the Christmas tree, draw or sculpt them on the windows, and make garlands out of them. Why not go beyond the usual boundaries and create wonderful winter compositions using the quilling technique as a basis?! Put in a little effort and you will have beautiful openwork snowflakes at home, which you can also give to friends as souvenirs.

To create a New Year's snowflake you will need:

• special paper for quilling;
• scissors;
• ruler;
• stationery knife;
• toothpick.

Step 1. Cut strips of quilling paper 25-27 mm long and 3-5 mm wide.

Step 2. Take a toothpick - it will be your main tool in this work. Cut off the sharp tip on one side and use a stationery knife to make a small incision - about 1 cm.

Step 3. Insert the first strip of paper into the cut and slowly twist it into a spiral. Make sure that the paper is curled and not just a toothpick. There is no need to rush in this matter, because then the craft may not work out.

Step 4. The finished spiral must be removed from the toothpick and placed on a flat surface so that it unwinds slightly.

Step 5. Apply a little glue to the end of the strip and glue the spiral.

Step 6. To make one snowflake, you must use the same principle to make several similar curls of different shapes and sizes.

Step 7 Fold the resulting spirals into a snowflake, carefully gluing each piece.

Volumetric Christmas tree

This bright New Year's composition can be an excellent table decoration, as well as a wonderful gift for a loved one, colleague or relative.

To create a voluminous Christmas tree you will need:

• scissors;
• quilling paper;
• ruler-pattern with circles of different diameters;
• PVA glue;
• toothpick;
• tweezers.

If you don't have a quilling tool, a regular toothpick with a cut end can easily replace it.

Step 1. To work, take special green paper and cut it into several dozen strips 3 mm wide, and also cut brown paper into strips 7 mm wide.

Step 2. Brown stripes need to be wound into loose curls, for example onto a regular marker. Lubricate their ends with glue and glue them. Brown “barrels” are ready!

Step 3. Now you need to make green blanks. Wrap the paper around an awl (toothpick) and insert it into a size 16 ruler. Let it run free. To remove a curl from a ruler, you need to insert a toothpick into the center, slightly move it to the center and remove it.

Step 4. Glue the end of the spiral with PVA glue. Squeeze the curl slightly so that it takes the shape of a droplet. Prepare 10 of these droplets. Wrap each curl with a white strip of the same width and glue it. This is the first row of your Christmas tree.

Step 5. We make the second row using the same principle, only insert it into the circle numbered 15. Twist about 10 such curls. Glue the first two rows as shown in the photo.

Step 6. Now make spirals for the third row by inserting them into hole number 14. Glue them.

Step 7 For the fourth row you will need a circle of size 13. The same size must be taken for the 5th and 6th rows. Carefully glue all the parts to each other, as can be seen in the photo. Glue another “drop” onto the top. Decorate the Christmas tree with beads and it is ready!