home › Prayers › Gradation of patterns according to the size and height of the scheme. Performing gradation of patterns of the main details of a female (male) shoulder product with set-in sleeves in terms of size and height

Gradation of patterns according to the size and height of the scheme. Performing gradation of patterns of the main details of a female (male) shoulder product with set-in sleeves in terms of size and height

Gradation of patterns - designing the contours of patterns of clothing parts of various sizes and heights based on patterns of products of medium size.

Height gradation is based on inter-height intervals established with the help of anthropometric measurements of the human figure.

One of the requirements for the process and methods of gradation is the preservation of the technical characteristics of the clothing models that they received during the design and manufacture process.

When analyzing the quality of samples, the designs of which are obtained by gradation methods, the following factors are analyzed:

Fitting the product as a whole,

The position of the main construction lines,

Preservation of the silhouette shape and proportion provided for the average height,

Preservation of model features.

There are three ways of grading patterns:

Ray,

grouping method,

Proportional calculation.

The essence of the ray method is that after the contours of the patterns are transferred to paper from a certain point of the part, rays are drawn through all the most critical design points of this part, on which increments are plotted. The obtained points are sequentially connected to each other, drawing similar contours of a larger or smaller size.

Gradation of patterns by grouping method requires having two sets of patterns of different sizes: medium and large, or medium and small. Patterns of parts of both sizes are sequentially transferred to paper, their contours are outlined, while necessarily combining the basic horizontal and vertical lines. The design points of the same name on the matching patterns are connected by straight lines and divided into the number of parts corresponding to the number of intermediate sizes +1. The obtained points of each size are sequentially connected to each other in the same way as the lines of the main structure.

The proportional calculation method of gradation has received the greatest distribution in the clothing industry. The essence of this method is that the structural points of the patterns are moved horizontally and vertically in accordance with changes in the dimensional features of the human body and the positions of the division lines.

The construction of gradation drawings is performed in the following sequence:

On each piece of clothing of the original size, the initial lines and the starting point of the gradation are determined;

Set and designate the gradation point;

From each gradation point of the original size, the gradation value is laid in the direction of the coordinates;

The final points of the graduated sizes are found as the sum of two vectors - the diagonal of the parallelogram, the sides of which are increments to the given size of the part;

The corresponding points of the obtained size are connected and the contour of the garment detail is obtained.

The original lines and points affect the magnitude of the displacement vector of construction lines and points and remain for all sizes and heights.

When selecting initial points and lines, the following requirements must be taken into account:

Reference lines and points must be the same for the corresponding details of men's, women's and children's clothing;

They should provide a minimum increment of the most complex curved sections of the structure.

The change in the size of the patterns of clothing details is associated with a change in the dimensional characteristics of a typical physique. Therefore, the rules for determining the size of clothing details during gradation are based on the patterns of change in subordinate dimensional features depending on the change in leading dimensional features.

Given these patterns, when grading clothing parts in size, the linear dimensions of the parts change both in the transverse and in the longitudinal direction. When grading the patterns of clothing parts by height, some linear dimensions of the parts change only in the longitudinal direction, neglecting the transverse increments due to their small size.

The initial horizontal increments for grading by size is the interdimensional difference along the chest, waist and hips. The distribution of the interdimensional difference should be made in proportion to the dimensions of the parts.

The gradation of small parts depends on their location in the product, on the size of the part, and is decided specifically for each model.

In this thesis project, the following details are graded:

1. The central part of the front of the jacket

2. The side of the front of the jacket

3. The central part of the back of the jacket

4. The side of the back of the jacket

5. Lower part of the sleeve

6. Upper part of the sleeve

7. Cuff

8. The central part of the front of the dress

9. Side part of the front of the dress

10. The central part of the back of the dress

11. The side of the back of the dress

Drawing up a table of measurements for pattern templates and finished products

To draw up a table of measures, it is necessary to establish the main and additional measurements for clothes of various cuts and divisions, as well as the maximum deviation from the nominal main measurements of finished products according to the normative and technical documentation.

For shoulder products, nine main proportional measurements of the human body are offered:

back length;

The distance at which the width of the back is measured;

The width of the product at the level of the depth of the armhole;

The distance at which the front width is measured;

The width of the front or shelves;

Front length;

The length of the sleeve;

Sleeve width;

Collar length (a product with a fastener to the top).

For waist products, 3 measurements are offered:

For a skirt:

Skirt length;

The width of the skirt along the waist and hips;

For trousers:

Side seam length;

The length of half the belt or the width along the waistline;

Width at the bottom.

Other measurements can be included in the list of measurements, taking into account model features.

Table 10. Measurements of pattern templates and finished products

	Name of measurement sites	Size, cm
measuring patterns	measurement of allowances	finished product measurement
	Back length: along the middle of the back from the seam of the collar to the bottom of the product		stitching in the collar - 1.0 bottom hem - 3.0 earnings - 0.5
	Back width: between the seams of sewing in the sleeves in the narrowest place at a distance of 15 cm from the seam of sewing into the neck		sewing-in seam of sleeves - 1.0 embossed seam - 2.0 middle seam - 1.0 earnings - 0.1
	The width of the product at the level of the depth of the armhole: from the edge of the side to the middle of the back		middle seam -1.0 embossed seams -4.0 turning the bead with a selection - 1.0 side seams-2.0 Working hours - 0.7
	The width of the product along the waist line from the edge of the side to the middle of the back		middle seam - 1.0 embossed seams - 4.0 bead turning - 1.0 side seams-2.0 earnings - 0.7

Is it possible to make a graduation in the Valentina program? This is a question I've been getting asked more and more lately. The answer to the question is Yes, you can! But before I show you how to do it, let's clarify a little what gradation is and what possibilities it opens up for us.

What is gradation?

Gradation of patterns is the process of designing a set of patterns for clothing parts of various sizes and heights based on patterns for a product of medium size.

Gradation is also called the engineering and design process of obtaining a number of similar images of contour or design lines of clothing parts to established sizes by increasing or decreasing clothing parts of the original size in accordance with established rules.

In simple terms, you need to create a pattern for an average size and height, and then, based on it, build a set of similar patterns for other sizes.

What opportunities does gradation give us?

Fast, automatic change and reproduction of patterns in the program opens up a number of possibilities for us:

Make patterns to order
Create patterns for sale
Create patterns for participants in master classes, marathons and competitions
Sewing items for sale

Surely this is not all the possibilities of applying gradation. If you know more, write in the comments!

How to make gradation in "Valentine"?

We can build a drawing to the standards of any. For example, I took measurements for five standard sizes: 44, 46, 48, 50, 52.
Then we create copies of this file with measurements and interrupt (change) the measurements in the copies of the files to measurements of the 46th, 48th, 50th and 52nd sizes. Thus, 5 sets of measurements will be obtained.

And now, applying each of the files with measurements to this drawing, we can change the drawing to each of the standard sizes in a matter of seconds. We create a layout and save a file with a pattern for each size. The pattern is saved in PDF format. It can be printed on your home printer.

In a short period of time, we can multiply the drawing into a number of sizes.

What are the advantages of such a gradation - patterns do not need to be redrawn on tracing paper. A pattern of each size is obtained on a separate file. All we have to do is print it, glue it and cut it out.

We can use this set of standard measurements for various drawings. For those that we already have or that we will create in the future. That is, we need to work hard and create this kit only once. And we can use it repeatedly, as well as any parametric pattern in the Valentina program.

If you have any questions, write in the comments. I will be glad to help you.

© Olga Marizina

Gradation patterns of clothing details Lecture

Plan 1. Basic requirements for the gradation of patterns. Schemes of gradation of patterns of clothing details by height and size. 2. Development of typical schemes for gradation of details. Development of gradation schemes for non-standard structures. 3. Drawing up a sheet of technical measurements.

Gradation of patterns Gradation of patterns is the process of designing a set of patterns of clothing parts of various sizes and heights based on patterns of a product of medium size. Gradation is also called the engineering design process of obtaining a number of similar images of contour or design lines of clothing parts to established sizes by increasing or decreasing clothing parts of the original size. according to established rules

Factors influencing the process of transformation of patterns of parts during gradation: - variability of dimensional features; - the structure of the design formulas of the design methodology; - a method for calculating the displacement of structural points relative to the original axes; - the nature of the sweeps of the three-dimensional form of figures of various sizes; - cut and appearance of products; -properties of materials.

Analysis of the pattern of variability of dimensional features of typical figures Changing the size of patterns of clothing details is associated with a change in dimensional features of figures of a typical physique. Therefore, the rules for determining the size of clothing details during gradation should be based on the patterns of change in the subordinate dimensional features of the body, depending on the change in the leading dimensional features. Gradation is done separately by size and height. Gradation by weight groups is not performed, because typical figures of the same size and height in different weight groups have a different physique.

Movement of constructive points during gradation: ΔХ - horizontal increment; Δ - vertical increment; (ΔХ+ Δ) − total displacement vector

The basic principles of gradation are the use of uniform rules for the gradation of patterns of clothing details for men, women, boys and girls; a single location of the original gradation lines; a unified method for calculating the displacements of structural points; the constancy of the magnitude of displacements of structural points relative to the original base size in each selected subgroup of sizes; a single view of the presentation of information and scientific and technical documentation for the gradation of patterns in manual and automated modes. keep unchanged the allowances for free fit, the direction of the warp threads in the details, the landing norms for the sleeves and technological allowances (for seams, shrinkage, working out, etc.). When grading patterns in size, the initial horizontal increment is an increment to the width of the finished sample along the chest line, equal to half the interdimensional difference - 2 cm (because ∆C gIII = 2.0 cm). The distribution of the interdimensional difference between the width of the main sections of clothing (backs, armholes, shelves) is performed in proportion to the width of these sections in the product and the variability of dimensional characteristics of the back width (W c), chest width (W g. The total horizontal increment to the sleeve width in finished form is usually design by 0.1–0.15 cm more than the increment to the width of the armhole.This is done to maintain a constant rate of fit of the sleeve okrug in all sizes.

Gradation points are points of intersection of construction lines or points located on the contour lines of clothing details, which, during gradation, change position in relation to the original lines. The main gradation points are identical to the design points of the basic structures (BC). The initial lines (axes) of gradation are conditional lines, relative to which the contours of the patterns of the base size are converted into patterns of any given size or height.

Influence of the position of the axes of gradation on the magnitude of increments of design points a - alignment of the middle line and the waist line of the back part; b - alignment of the tangent to the line of the armhole and the line of the chest of the back detail; c - alignment of the vertical passing through the top of the neckline and the waist line of the back detail.

Basic requirements when choosing initial points and lines (axes) of gradation The initial lines (axes) of gradation and points must be the same for the corresponding details of men's, women's and children's clothing; the initial lines (axes) must be aligned with the axes of the rectangular coordinate system; reference lines (axes) should ensure minimal movement of the most complex curved sections of the structure; reference lines (axes) must coincide with the main construction lines of the base structure; the Y-axis should match the location of the warp thread on the clothing details.

Beam method It is expedient to use the beam method when grading the details of headgear and corsetry, the size increments of which are made in the radial direction. From a certain point (focus), straight lines are drawn through the main design points of the part. From the contour of the part along these rays, increments of points are plotted and sections of parts of adjacent sizes and heights are obtained.

Grouping method (graphic) Provides for the combination of two sets of patterns along two mutually perpendicular axes (medium and adjacent to it or medium and extreme sizes). The grouping method is used as a starting point for determining increments at structural points of patterns of clothing details of complex cuts (non-standard gradation schemes), as well as for constructive points and segments that are not parallel to the X, Y axes in a rectangular coordinate system, and those that were determined during construction in a constructive way. Such structural elements include tucks on the bulges of the shoulder blades, abdomen, chest, the point of the top of the neck of the shelf, the top of the armhole of the back and shelf, etc.

Proportional-calculated (calculated-analytical) method of gradation. With the proportional-calculation (calculation-analytical) method, the increments are calculated on the basis of the variability of the subordinate dimensional features and are set in accordance with the position of the design points from the initial gradation lines.

Notation system for the directions of movement of constructive points Designation Horizontal Vertical When increasing the size or growth When decreasing the size or growth + right → left ← up down ↓ − left ← right → down ↓ up

Typical gradation schemes for patterns. Typical pattern gradation schemes are developed for shoulder and waist products in relation to their typical cut based on uniform principles for calculating the displacements of the main structural points. A typical design of shoulder clothing at the stage of grading patterns is the design of a product with a set-in sleeve, consisting of the following parts: a back, a shelf, a detachable side part, a single-seam sleeve with a different seam position or a double-seam sleeve with back and front seams.

The position of the initial lines (axes) of gradation In the details of products of standard designs, as the initial lines (axes) of the gradation, usually take the constructive lines that determine the basic grid of the design drawing.

Baselines and points in shoulder clothing according to the EMKO SEV method: on the back, the vertical line (33–13) runs tangent to the armhole line, and the horizontal line (31–33) runs along the chest-axillary line, the starting point is 33; on the shelf, the vertical line (35–15) runs tangent to the armhole line, and the horizontal line (35–37) runs along the thoracic-axillary line, the starting point is 35; on the sleeve, the vertical base line (351–355) runs along the upper section of the front fold line of the sleeve, and the horizontal one (351–333) coincides with the hem depth line and corresponds to the position of the armhole depth line of the product, the starting point is 351 (Fig. 6). When grading collars, their width is kept constant in the middle and at the ends; the value of increments to the length of the collar is set in accordance with the change in the length of the neck of the back and front. One starting line is selected in the collar - vertical, most often passing through the notch corresponding to the position of the shoulder seam

Do not change the width of the side, lapel, front roll of the set-in sleeve, folds, valves, cuffs, belt, slats, etc. during gradation. This allows you to use gradation schemes, in which the details are shown without the above items of clothing. The movement of points lying on the original gradation lines is carried out in only one direction along the gradation line: horizontally or vertically. All other constructive points of the contour are moved along the diagonal of a rectangle, the sides of which are transverse and longitudinal increments to a given part size

When grading the patterns of the back and front parts according to height, the longitudinal dimensions are changed only in the longitudinal direction in the parts of the parts located below the chest line (waist line, hips and bottom), neglecting transverse increments due to their relatively small size. This approach does not take into account the patterns of change in transverse dimensions with an increase in height, but allows you not to change the shape of the support areas that affect the fit of clothing. When grading patterns of parts by height, the initial increment is the increment to the length of the finished product, determined on the basis of the difference between heights between adjacent lengths of products. In addition, the amount of gradation of individual points varies depending on the type of clothing and the length of the product.

In accordance with the scale of the lengths of products and sleeves, the following values of the inter-height difference between adjacent lengths of products are accepted: 3 cm - for dresses and coats up to the knee; 4 cm - for elongated dresses and coats; 2 cm - for a jacket, jacket; 2 cm - for a long sleeve; 2 cm - for knee-length skirts; 3 cm - for elongated skirts; 4 cm - for trousers.

Typical gradation schemes Typical gradation scheme according to the height of the detail of the back of women's clothing. Typical scheme of gradation according to the size of the detail of the back of women's clothing

— Typical gradation scheme of the back detail with relief (sizes 84 -104) Typical gradation scheme of the back, cut along the waistline (sizes 84 -104)

Typical gradation scheme for the back with a yoke in women's clothing Typical gradation scheme for the back and barrel of a women's jacket (sizes 84 -104)

Basic Literature Amirova E. K., Sakulina O. V., Sakulin B. S., Trukhanova A. T. Clothing Design, Proc. for stud. inst. avg. prof. image. Ed. Center / Academy /, 2012 G. A. Kryuchkova "Designing women's and men's clothing". M. 2005 E. B. Koblyakova, G. S. Ivleva, A. I. Martynova. "Designing clothes with CAD elements", 2nd ed. , revised to additional Ed. E. B. Koblyakova. M. : Legprombytizdat, 1992. Recommended literature I. A. Radchenko “Fundamentals of designing and modeling clothes (1st edition), textbook, M. 2012 B. S. Sakkulin, E. K. Amirova “Designing male and female clothes". M. 2001 A. I. Martynova, E. G. Andreeva. "Constructive modeling of clothes", M. 2002. E. B. Koblyakova, A. I. Martynova. "Laboratory workshop on the design of clothing with CAD elements".

In the manufacture of things in an industrial way, only one set of patterns is initially developed. It is calculated on the average parameters of size and height in the recommended age group for the product. In order to competently, without violating proportions, reduce or increase the characteristics of parts, use technical reproduction gradation. It is understood as the creation of new sets of patterns for figures with different heights and sizes. Elements increase and decrease strictly according to the rules, focusing on the axes and points of the drawings.

In industry and self-tailoring, the design does not provide for reproduction in full-length groups, because inside each of them there may be figures with a different physique. Averaged patterns are graduated separately in height and size, using special increments for cuts on parts. They are set taking into account the variability of adjacent parameters and comparison of scans on mannequins with typical figures. If the values are found correctly, the contours will correspond to the outlines of the prototypes and will not be distorted.

The most “reliable” grading methods are EMKO SEV and TsNIIShP, which are similar in fundamentals, but excellent in practical implementation. The processes of any technical reproduction are influenced by many factors:

variability in dimensional characteristics - it is traced and systematized by studying information about dimensional standards;
design formulas that are adopted in a specific design method;
features of calculation of parameters of displacement of key points;
product characteristics - cut, design, fabric.

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General geometric relationships

The gradation of the patterns is based on proportionality, the correction of signs on figures with a typical addition. The process is subject to laws that determine variability. It is analyzed, revealing connections, and on their basis, specific instructions and rules for reproduction are formulated. In one direction (transverse, longitudinal), the signs have more in common, but opposite values also correlate with each other. To make it clearer, an example: when changing the size of the girth of the chest, both horizontal (to a greater extent) and longitudinal dimensions are corrected. Therefore, the gradation of patterns is always based on the totality of transverse, vertical increments and their total vector.

Pattern Grading Principles

The unity of the rules for reproduction on all patterns (for a woman, a man, a child).
The general position of the original gradation axes.
General methods for calculating quantities during the movement of constructive point marks and their constancy relative to the original dimensions (for the selected group).
Uniformity in data and documents.
The invariability of technological additions (allowances and gains in freedom of fitting), the direction of the threads in the warp, the fit for the sleeves.

The gradation of patterns in terms of size and height is taken as the initial increment in width at chest level. This horizontal is calculated by dividing the interdimensional difference in two. It is distributed proportionally along the shelf, back and armhole, focusing on the width. When designing a sleeve, the transverse increment is made 1-1.5 mm more than the addition of armholes, so that the fit rate for the okat remains unchanged. The verticals for the increment must be found from the data on the change in the proportions of the model and the distance between the marks for modeling and the original contours.

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Hyphenation rules for keynotes

Gradation points - the intersection of the main axes. Also, they can be taken as marks on the contour of the product, changing the position during reproduction and the corner vertices on the sections of the parts. The base axes are conditional lines, along which the contours of the prototype pattern are converted into the desired drawing. There should be enough points to line up elements with new dimensions and growth parameters, that is, to perform reproduction.

When choosing them, they are guided by the rules:

the unity of the initial marks and axes for the details of any clothing (for a woman, a man, a child);
alignment of initial lines with axes in a two-dimensional coordinate system;
minimal movement of the most complex structural elements with increased curvature;
coincidence of the initial axes with the lines on the pattern;
the position of the warp threads on things along the ordinate axis (Y).

When changing sewing patterns, you need to move each mark that lies on the lines in only one direction. If the point is located on the contours of the part, it can be moved both horizontally and vertically. Based on the basic principles, gradation is carried out. To do this, there are three generally accepted methods - grouping, beam and proportional calculation.

Ray method and grouping

The first two methods use less than proportional calculation. The ray gradation is used least often - it is simple, but inaccurate.

For reproduction you need:

draw straight lines from the initial focus point through all marks for construction;
postpone increments along the contour of the element along straight lines and put points at the end of the segment;
draw the outlines of the elements of the corrected size using the new marks.

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The accuracy depends on the choice of the initial focusing vertex. With different positions, the direction of the ray lines will also differ. This can lead to offset design marks on the patterns and distort the outline. The method can be used when designing elements on corsets, hats with radial increments.

When grouping (graphic technique), two sets are combined with patterns - the middle one with the adjacent one or with the extreme one. After that, segments are drawn between the marks, which are divided into parts. Their number depends on intermediate dimensions. The length of each segment is the desired increment. By connecting the marks on the straight lines, the master receives the intermediate outlines of the details. The method is used to find the desired increment in products with a complicated cut, as well as to draw segments that are not parallel to the coordinate axes. The master has to build several schemes - this is a lack of methodology.

Proportional calculation method

In mass production and tailoring, it is most convenient to use the proportional calculation method.

Basic concepts

The initial lines are vertical and horizontal, located perpendicular to each other.
Initial dots.
Points for construction.
Typical schemes.

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As part of the method, the design marks are shifted horizontally and vertically, taking into account the magnitude of the increments (they are constant for each of the dimensions). The initial axes are arranged depending on the specific method - the institute of the TsNIIShP or the EMKO SEV.

EMKO SEV involves the use of the following provisions:

for shoulder items - a back and a shelf (horizontal of the chest, lines along the armhole in front and behind), as well as a sleeve along the armpit and in front of the collar;
for skirts - back and front panels to the thigh and back / front axles at the middle level;
for trousers - back and front parts with hip and fold axes.

The research approach of TSNIISHP involves the use of provisions on:

back - horizontal lines coinciding with the axis of the waist, and vertical lines along the midline of the back on the grid;
front - a horizontal line coinciding with the waist and a vertical line passing at the armhole along a tangent;
to the sleeve - a horizontal coinciding with the base along the circle;
skirt panels - the horizontals are aligned with the hip line, and the verticals with the middle axis;
the back and front of the trousers - horizontal lines coinciding with the line along the infragluteal fold and vertically along the fold of the parts.

The Central Institute and EMKO CMEA use standard gradation schemes developed for clothing according to their standardized cut.

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Typical schemes

Typical diagrams are understood as images of parts of the structure, on which prototype marks and lines are marked. They are also indicated by vectors and increment parameters to perform gradation on specific marks. Schemes are developed on the basis of general principles of calculation. As a typical design, it is customary to consider a shoulder product with a set-in type sleeve.

Mandatory elements

Back and shelf.
Cut-off side.
Sleeve - single-seam type (the place of the seam varies) or double-seam, with seams in front and behind.

In the patterns of products designed according to the standard model, a drawing grid is provided, on which all the main axes are indicated.

Vertical on the back, passing tangentially to the curves of the armhole.
Horizontally along the back at the thoracic-axillary level.
Vertical along the shelf, located tangentially to the bend of the armhole.
Horizontal along the thoracic-axillary level of the shelf.
The initial vertical of the sleeve is at the level of the upper section of the fold along the front.
Sleeve horizontal, coinciding with the outline of the eyelet in depth - it is determined along the axis of the armhole depth.

When grading the collar, the width of the element in the central part and at the ends is left unchanged, and the increments are determined by the changed length of the neck along the back and front. There should be one basic vertical, which, as a rule, passes through the notch at the level of the shoulder seam. It is most expedient to carry out an increment for one size group, because in all cases the points for construction are different.

1. Determine the size and height options for the gradation corresponding to the given weight group and size subgroup of the base option. The required size and height options for figures should be determined according to OST 17 - 325 - 81, OST 17 - 326 - 81.

For example, the development of patterns for a women's jacket was carried out on a typical figure 158 - 96 - 104. This size is the base for the second fullness group, a subgroup of small sizes, which includes standard sizes 84, 88, 92, 96, 100, 104 and typical heights 146 152, 158 , 164, 170, 176. In gradation drawings, it is necessary to build 3 sizes down and two sizes up. For the base size 96, patterns of all the missing heights should be built: 146, 152, 164, 170, 176.

2. Construct the contours of the basic dimension of the assembly details. Apply gradation axes to each detail.

3. Choose a gradation method and scheme from among those recommended (1, 2, 4 ... 8) or available at the enterprise.

4. Draw a diagram of the gradation of the details of the back assembly. On the diagram, indicate the directions and magnitudes of gradation increments at characteristic points (∆х i, ∆у i).

5. Build gradation drawings by size, then by height. The drawings are made on graph paper in M 161.

6. Perform an analysis and refine the gradation drawings based on the results of comparing the lengths of the design parameters of the same name in the details of the extreme size options. The number of those analyzed includes the parameters controlled by the technical description sheet of measures. In tabular form, reflect the results of the alignment of the constructive increments incorporated in the controlled parameters.

Table 3.37

Analysis of the change in structural gains during gradation

Design parameter name

Product measurement, cm

The size of the dimension, cm

The value of the constructive increase, cm

Conclusions about the correctness of gradation

Back width

The amount of increase in the support zone is constant

Shoulder Width

The increase changes, which corresponds to the calculation system and the rational configuration of the armhole

7. Perform an analysis of conjugation, overlapping and invariance in the ratio of the lengths of the cuts of the patterns of the extreme size options.

Table 3.38

Analysis of changes in the lengths of joined slices after gradation