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Lowercase letter: usage rules. How uppercase and lowercase letters are written and what they are

Russian letters differ from each other not only in style and sound designation, but also in size. Correct writing obeys certain rules. Uppercase and lower case- what is it known to every schoolchild, especially an elementary school student. But the knowledge gained at school is forgotten very quickly, and adults are unlikely to remember the definitions of these terms.

Uppercase and lowercase letters are two types of graphic icons in writing. Interestingly, the division into such varieties is not in all languages. They are present in Cyrillic, and also in the Greek alphabet, Latin, Armenian. The situation in Georgia is unusual. There are no capital icons (with a specific meaning of use), but certain sections of the text (for example, titles, headings) are typed in large icons. They have small inscriptions, but differ from them in size. In other writing systems, the division into uppercase and lowercase letters does not exist.

For the first acquaintance with them, it is enough to learn a brief information:

capital - the one that is larger;
lowercase - one that is smaller in size.

And in order for the information to be remembered better, linger in the head for a long time and not turn into confusion, you need to study the issue deeper, delving into the details.

uppercase

This is a capital, large, beautiful, initial. The letter sign is increased in size compared to the rest. Most often, it is the only one in the line, it is with it that the sentence begins. In elementary school, children with great diligence learn to draw the first alphabetic character - because it should turn out beautiful.

The first official use of capital letters is seen in the 15th century. However, further research showed that people tried to beautifully arrange the initial characters of the name, surname, sentence long before the beginning of the 15th century. Such graphic icons, decorated with ornaments and curlicues, were called drop caps.

Capital letters inThe text is written only in those cases that are confirmed by spelling rules. The most common of them, which are most often encountered in practice, will be indicated below.

Another definition of "capital" is found in elementary school at the stage of teaching writing. It is less common, therefore it does not appear in dictionaries. It is used only to distinguish between the type of writing, the antonym for the word "capital" is "printed". When a teacher asks to write a word, a sentence, a text in cursive, he means lowercase and uppercase letters. And their choice should take place on the basis of the studied rules.

Lowercase

This is a small letter. In a sentence and text, it is much more common than graphic icons of the previous type. This is explained by the fact that small letters are used several times more often in writing - these are the rules of Russian spelling.

All letters that do not fall under the rules for writing capitals are lined up in one line and have the same height, therefore they are called lowercase.

Note! The stress in the term "lowercase" falls not on the first, but on the last syllable, no matter how much one would like to associate its pronunciation with the pronunciation of the word "line".

Useful videos: how to write uppercase small letters?

Main differences

Uppercase and lowercase letters have a number of differences from each other.

They are as follows:

The size. The capital letter is about 2 times larger than the small one. This is clearly visible when using notebook sheet in broad line: capital letter occupies the entire height of the line, and the small one fits in its half.
Writing. The capital letter has much more details and features of the style, which first-grade students are diligently trying to learn. It is much more complicated than small in outline.
Frequency of use. The capital letter is found in the text much less often than the small one, because its choice must be justified by certain rules.

Having learned for himself the difference between uppercase and small graphic icons, a person stops confusing these two terms with each other.

Examples

An illustrative example of how the styles of both categories look like.

When comparing the graphic icons next to each other, it immediately becomes clear which of them are CAPITAL and which are lowercase.

Capitalization spelling

In Russian, the use of two types of inscription is subject to the rules of the corresponding section of orthography. According to them, the new sentence begins with a capital character, which seems to lead the army of small, ordinary icons. It shows that the previous thought has ended and another has begun, or simply denotes the beginning of a thought. Direct speech, quotations, each new line poems.

But there are other, more complex rules that explain the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters:

Names, surnames, patronymics of people and adjectives based on them. For example: Andrey Igorevich Yablochkin, Petkin's car.
Names of animals and adjectives made from them. For example: Tuzik, Murka, Kesha, Fluff, Tuzikov collar.
Geographical objects, places, names (continents, cardinal points, countries, cities, villages, villages, territories, republics, islands, seas, oceans, rivers, lakes). For example: the Black Sea, the Baltic, the Atlantic Ocean, the city of Moscow, the mainland Africa, the village of Yantarny, the Republic of Adygea.
Names of firms, companies, shops, enterprises. For example: the Rostvertol plant, the Pyaterochka store, the Belvest shoe company.
Names of the great historical events, the most important documents (First World War, Petrine era).
Names of publications, works of art, dishes (Murzilka magazine, Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper, Moonlight Sonata, painting Barge haulers on the Volga, Caesar salad).
Names of ministries, important state organizations (Ministry of Education, City Duma).
High positions of great national importance (President, Queen).
The first word of the name of the holidays and important events(Birthday, Christmas, Easter, Victory Day).
The pronoun "you" when special respect is required.
Abbreviations - consist entirely of capital icons (KPRF, MLM, SFU).

In all other cases, when the word is not included in the category of proper names, but is a common noun, lowercase are writtenstyles.

Possible difficulties in choosing an option

In Russian, most of the rules are ambiguous and have additional explanations or exceptions.

Important! When the choice of letter size (capital/small) is required for filling important documents or performing serious tasks, works - it is better to check yourself in dictionaries and reference books.

Possible difficulties in choosing the size of a graphic icon:

Proper names of mythical, historical, literary heroes, which began to be used in a generalized, figurative sense, to refer to a certain character or lifestyle of people. The rules for writing such words are ambiguous: some are written with a capital letter (Oblomov, Napoleon, Hamlet), others with a lowercase letter (Donquixote, Judas, Hercules, which have become common nouns). A variant of their use is given in the dictionary.
The names of geographical objects and important historical events, used in a generalized (figurative) sense, have the same distinctions and their own spelling features: Sodom (debauchery), Olympus (top), Kamchatka (last places) and Chernobyl, Mecca, Hiroshima.
The names of devices, techniques, units of measurement, obtained by the names of their inventors, are written with a lowercase letter. For example: X-ray, volt, pascal and so on.
and terms where one of the words is a proper name, as well as adjectives composed of them, do not have a large icon (Achilles' heel, Demyan's ear, x-rays).
Adjectives that were composed by the last name and first name of a person using the suffixes -sk, -ovsk, -insk - are written with a lowercase letter (Dalevsky dictionary, Prishvin prose).

Useful video: lowercase Russian letters

Conclusion

In fact, delving into the material taught in the lessons in educational institution, the pupil and the student master the spelling of graphic signs well, understand the differences and features of their use, which means that they do not have serious difficulties in observing this norm.

The main thing is to remember the definitions, to understand some of the difficulties for yourself. And in case of difficulty, do not forget about the possibility of referring to the dictionary.

Working on letter connections

More convenient and faster is a letter in which the writer infrequently takes his hand off the paper. This is carried out due to the continuous inscription of several letters in a word (usually 4-5 letters are written with one stroke), due to some rotation of the brush (rotational movement - pronation) or due to the continuous movement of the forearm as the line is filled.

Although the skill of folding movements is not immediately automated and picks up speed, the habit of making certain movements is fixed very early. Therefore, whether there will be a tear-off or non-separation movement when writing letters at first learning is very important for the emerging writing skill.

In a written font, the possibility of continuous writing of letters is taken into account. Almost all letters of the written script, both uppercase and lowercase, are written without breaking off the "pen", with the exception of some letters. So, with a margin, we write the top element in capital letters G, P, T, B, R. In capital letters P and T the first two elements are also written with a gap:

It is recommended to make a break in the letter of capital letters TO, F and X. A dash in the middle of the letter E is detached. From lowercase letters, the letter b is detached with the help of a connecting stroke with the next letter. With a gap, the previous letters are connected with the letter c. With one gap, the letters k, x, e and and. In the letter w, the right semi-oval is written with a margin.

In different methodological systems, in equal countries and at the same time, for the continuous connection of ovals, semi-ovals of roundings in letters (when connecting them with other letters or inside the same letters), various methods of these connections were used:

Connections of type a), b) and d) can be used for connections with both ovals and semi-ovals and roundings, since this connection is of the same type, that is, it is the same with all letter shapes. Connections of type c) can only be used with oval letters.

Adults usually use different types connections depending on the shape of the letter, letter combination, writing speed, etc. At the same time, connections a) are used very rarely, more often with semi-ovals, and in adults they turn into looped connections. This is explained by the fact that the connection by repetition from right to left is unnatural, since it does not coincide with the direction of movement of the hand in the process of writing, but goes in the opposite direction. Connection type b) for left semi-ovals and roundings is more natural, since the repetition goes from left to right, which corresponds to the direction of hand movement in the process of writing. In oval connections, adults often use a lower repetition of type c) or looped connections, especially with upper and middle connections with lowercase letters o and yu. These observations of E. N. Sokolova are also confirmed by the physiological studies of I. N. Sokolov and A. I. Korvat. So, they found that the beginning of writing ovals from bottom left to right is more convenient for writing hand. According to N. N. Sokolov, looped connections are also convenient, performed in the rhythm of the movement of the hand.

Consequently, children should also be taught natural movements, without introducing artificial, even if of the same type, connections of the upper repetition. It is not easy to introduce from the very beginning only looped connections that cross the letter and, if children perform it ineptly, can lead to violations of the very image of the letter, which makes it difficult to read what is written. So. the syllable la might look like

Here we can see in advance the errors of both spelling and perception of the letter. Taking into account the greatest convenience for those who write soon, it is precisely the loop connections, it is necessary to organize their gradual introduction at the older stages of learning, when the image of the letter is available. With this, it is quite possible for err to change from the lower reconnection to the more economical loopback connection: . It should be noted that the upper loop connection in the letters o, u, in movement does not represent anything new in comparison with the lower connection with oval letters. This is the same connection, only raising it higher for convenience, to reduce the trajectory of movement. Usually, in the letter of adults, just such a connection is observed:

This was also taken into account earlier when D. A. Pisarevsky, V. A. Saglin, N. N. Bogolyubov introduced continuous writing, which was reflected in their methods. We also adhere to the gradual complication of the connections of letters in the process of learning calligraphy. In class I, only lower connections with oval letters are introduced. At the same time, it is recommended to make a break before oval and semi-oval letters. The teacher can write on the blackboard without interruption, while children are allowed to write with a margin, but connect the letters from below; this method will prepare the subsequent transition to a continuous letter with oval letters

When writing letters o, u, in class II, loop connections must be entered (with the upper and middle connection): horse, pitchfork and bottom repeat in bottom join: my. With the rest of the oval and semi-oval letters, you can use more than one type of connection, but combine these types in the same way as adults do in their letter; with oval letters (a, d, b, f) it is better to use bottom repetition from left to right in the middle of the word and start writing from above at the beginning of the word:

Semi-ovals in the letters c, w, x in grades I and II are best written with a break, keeping the connection with the left semi-oval intact only in the letter w.

In grade III, students can also be shown continuous connections with semi-oval letters, namely looped connections:

That's right, depending on the convenience of the connection, adults in different letter combinations use different types of connections.

At first, it is not so easy for children to get used to which combination of letters to use which connection. They transfer any technique to different letter combinations. The task of the teacher is to constantly work out the correct, necessary connections in letter combinations, the most convenient in them.

Techniques for seamless connections

Before talking about the methods of combining letters, it is necessary to dwell on the classification of letter compounds. By height, the connections can be conditionally divided into upper, middle, lower, but it must be understood that this division is conditional. So, the lower ones can be called connections of the previous letters with oval letters a, b, d, f with the letters l, m, i and c letter o, if it is followed by a letter that we begin to write from below.

The middle connection can be considered the connection of the previous ones in with the letters e, z, g, z, x, h, e, c, since these letters start approximately from the middle of the line height or slightly higher. Connections with the letters i, k, t, p, s, n, y, c, as well as o and u can be considered upper ones if they are followed by letters that begin when writing from above or in the middle. However, this division is rather arbitrary, since with continuous writing it is difficult to talk about the boundaries of the beginning of the letter n and the connection with the previous letter, the movement is continuous. The relativity of such a division is very clearly visible when the previous letter is combined with the letter c. So, - clearly the upper connection, and in the connection it is difficult to say whether it is the middle or the lower one. Realizing that such a division in a continuous process of writing is conditional, the teacher makes it for the convenience of working out the features of these connections. At the same time, it must be remembered that the middle connection by methods does not differ from the upper one.

The lower Connection of letters in, b, b with the following looks like this: , and the middle and upper -

It is also necessary to distinguish between compounds in the continuous writing of letters, depending on their shape:

1. Compounds of letters, including ovals: a) a, b, e, f; b) Oh, Yu, c) Oh, Yu

2. Connections of letters, including semi-ovals or roundings:

3. Compounds of letters that do not include ovals or semi-ovals: a) d, i. k, n, n t, h, w; b) l, m, i; c) p, f - unseparated letter of an element that goes beyond the bottom line; d) connections after loops - d, h, y, c, u, d, h, y.

4. Capital compounds - D, A

Techniques for the continuous connection of such letters as k. vv. y (not oval and not semi-oval) are very simple. To seamlessly connect letters in syllables or letter combinations like nor, shu, ying, mk, and the elements inside these letters, it is necessary to bring the connecting stroke to the beginning of the letter next letter or element: . If the stroke is brought to the middle of the height of the letter, then the beginning of the next letter should not be far from the previous one, or detached: .

Thus, in order to connect similar letters without separation, it is necessary to draw a connecting stroke to the height of the beginning of the letter of the next letter (in grade 1 to the top line of the line. ”Naturally, the letters l.m, I and the previous letters are connected easily, without interruption. Connections of these letters always lower with other letters.However, children in this combination very often make the mistake of starting the letters l, m, i from the middle of the height of the letters and even higher.This is due to the fact that children get used to writing all letters from a certain height from top to bottom:

They transfer this technique to writing letters that begin below the top line of the line. Instead of writing, starting to write a letter m above or almost above. Such graphical errors can sometimes be mistaken for spelling errors, leading to misreading of what is written. Students should know that connecting with letters l, m, i lower. It should start a little above the bottom line of the line.

In order to write an element that extends down the line in the letters p and f without taking your hand off, you need to write this element without taking your hands down and draw a pen along what was written up:

Students should know well what compounds are used to write opals and semi-ovals, in what combinations of letters and how these letters are written if they are at the beginning of a word.

Lower case a, b, e, f always connect with the previous letter without tearing off the hand, by re-drawing it from below in the direction of the hand movement in the process of writing.

Syllable that without fail it is written like this:

The letters d, b are also connected with the previous letter. f:

If a word begins with an oval letter, then you need to write this letter on top:

If the word begins with an oval letter or if the letter is an independent word (for example, the union a), it is advisable to write this letter from above, since there is no preliminary outline of the letter, the movement is more economical. If the teacher draws the children's attention to the beginning of writing oval letters at the beginning of a word, specifically practices this technique, then the children get used to writing correctly. The letter of ovals in capital letters always starts from the bottom O and Yu for a seamless connection followed by letters:

The lowercase letter o is connected to the previous letter in different ways depending on the connection with the subsequent letter (upper or lower): If the word begins with a lowercase letter about, then the connection with the next letter will be somewhat different:

At the end of the word, we begin to write the letter o in a way that is convenient for the hand.

The letter u, as well as the letter about, connects with the next letter, depending on whether this connection will be upper or lower:

Repeated observations show that with a tear-off opinion of a lowercase letter o with the letters l, m, i, i.e., in the lower connection, children often make such a mistake - they attach the letters l, m, i to the letter about without connecting stroke:

The letter o becomes similar to the letter a. With continuous writing, the connecting stroke is not skipped, but care must be taken that it is of sufficient length and does not go up: but not

The teacher should remind the students that this connection is at the bottom, so the connecting stroke does not go up.

Letter b with the next letter is connected by a connecting line with a separation of the "pen":

The letter c with the previous letter is connected tear-off:

Letters z and f with subsequent letters are connected by re-holding bottom:

The letter w is written without tearing off the "pen" by re-drawing from below and with a separation from above the right semi-oval:

Letter X capital and x lowercase are written with a margin. Let us briefly describe the procedure for introducing continuous connections.

When working with seven-year-old first-graders, it was clear that it was necessary to teach children the techniques of continuous writing of 2-3 letters (syllables) from the first lessons, so as not to relearn later.

Six-year-old children put much more effort into the process of writing, they get tired and distracted more. However, they can write individual letters without interruption, connect, without taking their hands off the paper, two letters, if these letters are not oval, for example, syllables: shu, st, lu, etc.

In the alphabetic period, individual letters are written without interruption, which are presented in the written font as continuously written. In addition, children should write two letters like shu, me, li, ate, etc. (except for oval letters) without taking their hands off.

It is better to write oval letters in the middle of a word from bottom left to right with a turn and not require children to connect seamlessly

From grade II, children learn to write a syllable without taking their hands off the paper. This requirement remains until the end of class II. If the teacher immediately requires students to write the whole word in white, it is very difficult for some children to do this, they write with great tension, usually break the slope at the end of the word. By the end of grade II, most children easily write 3-5 letters themselves without taking their hands off.

In grade III, children learn to write whole words without interruption, consisting of 4-5 letters. Separations are also made where there are letters that must be written by tearing off the hand (b, k. x, etc.). In grade II, all letter combinations should be worked out. There is a need to work out the lower connection with the letters l, m, i, as their students often begin to write very highly. The teacher returns to working out these connections when he notices such errors in the students' writing.

Connections with oval letters can be entered in this order: first of all, work out bottom connection with lowercase oval letters a, b, e, f. This connection occurs with all oval letters.

Then move on to working out the connections of capital letters O and YU
followed by letters, since these connections are similar
previously repeated connections with lowercase oval
letters. Separately, you should work out connections with lowercase
letters o and Yu. First you need to repeat the bottom connections
with these letters. With students, it turns out in what cases
the connections of these letters will be lower. This connection will
lower when the letter following the letters o and u
we start writing from below, i.e. with letters l, m, i, a, b, e, f. On the
the next lesson repeats the top connection with lowercase
letters about and yu. You can compare the spelling of two words:,

In which the double letter o is connected differently depending on the letter following it

Separately, you should work out the connection with semi-oval letters. It must be repeated that the right semi-oval is connected both inside the letters, and in the letter c - always with a separation. The letter is explained with a separation in other semi-ovals - letters e, x, g.

In grades III-IV, the teacher works out with children ways of connecting letters in words. It is in these classes that a transition to more convenient loop connections of semi-ovals is possible.

Understand that continuous writing is convenient and makes it possible to make the fastest and smoothest movements, but the teacher must also be aware that there are children with impaired coordination of movements or deviations in nervous system, with twitching of hands while writing, etc., to which the rules on the continuity of writing should not be applied. Such children can be allowed to write in a way that is convenient for them. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the writing speed of such children lags behind the writing speed of other students.

It can be especially difficult for them to make a long continuous movement in the process of writing. Therefore, the teacher allows these children to write letter by letter, without imposing on them a continuous letter, but without forbidding it either. The mark for tear-off writing is not reduced.

Summarizing what has been said in this chapter, we give instructions on beech compounds in following table:

Class	Connection Requirements	The nature of the connections	Dosage of continuous writing
I class (6 years)	Mostly by letter	Breaks in front of oval and semi-oval letters. Connections in front of the ovals below as a preparation for continuous writing.	Connections of two letters - shu, il, sn - can be continuous
II class (7 years)	Posyllabic continuous letter	A tear-off letter with right semi-ovals before s and letters x and zh. A non-separable lower connection with oval letters is introduced. Continuous upper loop connection with the letters o, u, v, b, b.	Rule: syllable Write without taking your hand (ball) i.e. 2-3 letters.
SH class (8 years)	Unbreakable letter short words	Continuous loop connections with semi-oval letters are shown.	Continuous letter 4-5 letters

Tilt in writing

The letter can have a different slope: it can be straight (non-inclined), oblique to the right and oblique to the right. Direct writing is considered when the main elements of the movement (towards oneself) go perpendicular to the line of the line; when writing with an inclination to the right, the main elements form an acute angle to the line of the line; when writing with an inclination to the left, the main points form an obtuse angle to the line of the line: І K.

Right angle - direct letter.

Sharp corner- right-hand letter

Obtuse angle - left-handed letter

We teach students to write with a right slant. However, the writing of adults, depending on various circumstances, can be more or less inclined to the right, can be non-inclined (straight) or be tilted to the left. Right-slanted writing is perceived as more beautiful. The requirement to write with an inclination to the right for right-handed people (and most of them) is determined not mainly by aesthetic qualities letters and not even the traditions of italic script. The requirement to write with an inclination to the right is determined primarily by the convenience for the writer, the ability to carry out faster movements while writing with less effort.

Our school script is slanted precisely because it suits convenience. writing person for faster writing. Let's take a look at what these conveniences are. In the process of writing Active participation they take in the implementation of movements the fingers and, in general, the hand, forearm and shoulder, i.e. the joints and muscles of the whole arm are involved. Therefore, convenience for the movement of the hand during writing is necessary. The student writes while sitting at a desk or table. It is necessary that he sit comfortably while writing. The student monitors how and what he writes. Therefore, it is necessary to write so that it is convenient for sight. As many studies have shown, writing with an inclination to the right is the fastest and most convenient for moving the right hand along the line while writing, for moving the fingers of the hand, i.e., it corresponds to the biomechanics of writing.

Let's try to understand it, to prove it. "When writing for the hand and fingers, it is most convenient to make movements directly on oneself (in accordance with the flexibility of the joints of the phalanges of the fingers). The same movements are easiest to follow with the eye, since the eye makes movements vertically: from top to bottom and from bottom to top. So, direct writing is the most convenient for the eye and the hand.It would be so if a person wrote in one place, without passing the brush, and the paper would move from right to left.

In fact, in the process of writing, the hand moves to the right. This is done by moving the forearm in a circle with the center at the elbow. The elbow is either motionless or moves slightly. Put right hand on the table so that the brush is opposite the middle of the chest, and rotate your arm freely in a circle with the center at the elbow joint. Your brush will move up first. This is exactly the segment of the path in which we write along the line.

Therefore, for the free movement of the hand during writing, it must move to the right and up. Therefore, we need an inclined position of the notebook, in which the forearm can freely move upwards on a certain segment of the path.

The fingers and the hand at this time carry out the main movements perpendicular to the line of the line when writing to themselves, and the connecting ones - with an inclination to the right.

A sheet of paper while writing is placed on the table with an inclination so that the lines go up, and when a person writes and puts the notebook straight, the lines will be straight, This will be convenient for reading what is written. If a person puts the paper not with an inclination, but writes in a straight position, then it will be very inconvenient for the hand and forearm when writing for a long time.

since in this case the forearm and hand, instead of free movement along the radius, must constantly move down, as if “shrinking”, the shoulder moves back, pressing against the body, to turn the entire body in one direction. Therefore, the letter is then convenient when the sheet of paper lies with an inclination. As a result of tilting the paper, the letter is not straight, but oblique. This letter will be most convenient for a right-handed writer.

With the paper in a straight position, we get a straight letter, but it is inconvenient for moving the hand along the line

Thus, the slope when writing we get, as it were, by itself. It is determined by the oblique position of the notebook. The slanted letter in this case is the result, the product of the writing process.

However, slanted writing will not be convenient if we write with a slant when the notebook is in a straight position. Then we will reproduce cursive uppercase patterns, but for hand movement and eye tracking, this will be inconvenient and tiring. Therefore, it is inappropriate to teach oblique writing only for the purpose of copying oblique. This also leads to a persistent habit of sitting incorrectly at a desk. Such a letter takes place when the teacher watches only that. so that the student writes with a slant, without requiring him to hold the slant notebook as well. This is often facilitated by additional oblique lines on the sheet (oblique grid). In this case, at any position of the notebook, a slope in the letter is obtained.

The tilt to the left is convenient only for those who are learning to write with their left hand, and also at a certain position of the paper while writing. This will be discussed below.

Uppercase and lowercase are the letters used daily for writing. The first is a capital letter (large), and the second is smaller than it in size (small).

A bit of history

Initially, when writing, only those borders (upper and lower) were clearly defined. Over time, cursive developed, the letters took on a more rounded shape. Thus, the foundations of the so-called minuscule Carolingian writing, which was developed by the scientist Alcuin, arose. It was used at the court of Charlemagne, and over time this letter spread throughout Europe. So for the first time a single text began to contain lowercase and uppercase letters.

Uppercase and lowercase letters

The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is one of the most difficult problems of modern Russian spelling. Permanent change reality entails a change in the spelling of these letters. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly study new editions of reference books and dictionaries, which in without fail should reflect such innovations.

But, despite this, there are basic principles for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters. They help to understand the spelling of large and small letters, even if a word is not in the dictionary.

Capitalization Rules

It is written in capital letters:

Rules for the use of a lowercase letter

A lowercase letter is written if it is a constituent:

articles, prepositions, particles in Western European names and (Ludwig van Beethoven);
personal names that pursue the goal of an ironic or negative assessment (new puddles);
nouns formed from surnames and personal names (Oblomovism);
constituent parts of Turkic and Arabic names, which indicate family relations or social status (al, zade, bek, yeah);
the names of units of measurement that were given by the name of the scientist (amps);
words earth, moon, sun, which are not astronomical names;
adjectives containing a suffix -sk- denoting belonging, formed from proper names (Chekhov's pages);
titles and positions (deputy minister, mayor);
abbreviations formed from common names (university - higher educational institution).

Also, a lowercase letter is written in the names:

geological epochs and periods, archaeological cultures and epochs (Mesozoic era);
positions and titles, international organizations, as well as higher foreign elective institutions (Emperor of Japan, Major General, Ambassador);
plural authorities (Ministries of Russia);
animal breeds (Keeshond dog);
institutions whose names are not proper names(school number 592).

Principles for the use of lowercase and capital letters

Having studied the above rules, we can identify the basic principles on the basis of which lowercase and uppercase letters are used. So:

Highlighting specific segments of sentences (text) is a syntactic principle.
Highlight certain words in the text:

1) A lowercase letter is written in capital letters - in proper names - a morphological principle.

2) A capital letter is written in common nouns endowed with special symbols or pathos (Man, Fatherland), in the names of holidays (New Year, Victory Day) - a semantic principle.

3) The capital letter is used in abbreviations made up of the first letters.

It is necessary to distinguish

As already mentioned, a lowercase letter is written in the names of adjectives that contain the suffix -sk- denoting belonging and formed from proper names. Therefore, "Pushkin's prose" is written with a small letter. But with a suffix -sk-, having the meaning of a name in honor of someone's memory, are capitalized. For example, "Lomonosov Readings".

Word: lowercase and uppercase letters

Due to the rapid development information technologies, the Microsoft Office Word program, which is practically indispensable in labor and educational process. But few people know how to make lowercase letters from capital letters and vice versa with one press of certain keys.

So let's write capital letters the following text:

"LOWER LETTERS OF THE RUSSIAN ALPHABET".

Now you need to select the text and press the Shift and F3 keys at the same time. After that we will have:

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"Lower Letters of the Russian Alphabet".

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The structure of lowercase letters provided for in cursive

It consists of two elements: a regular oval, a rectilinear vertical element ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

It consists of two elements: a line oval of the correct form, an arched superscript element consisting of a straight vertical segment that starts from the oval and is equal in size to its height, and a horizontal straight segment equal to 1/2 of the vertical part. Both parts of the riser are connected to each other by an arcuate movement:

Consists of two elements: superscript loop, lowercase oval. The height of the superscript loop is 1.5 times greater than the height of the oval; the width of the loop is 2/3 of the width of the oval.

The second variant of the letter "v", provided for by the inscriptions, for connection with subsequent letters, has an oval that is not closed by 1/4 part and ends with a small loop;

Consists of a lowercase rectilinear vertical element, which begins and ends with arcuate movements equal to Uz of the height of the letter;

It consists of two elements: a line oval of the correct form, a line rectilinear vertical element, turning into a subline loop. The stitch loop is equal in length to the height of the oval, in width - 1/2 of the width of the oval. In manuscripts, the letter “d” is often found, consisting of: a lowercase oval and an superscript arcuate element;

It consists of one element, the upper part of which is a loop, the lower part is made in an arcuate movement;

It consists of two elements: the first, by design, is the letter "e"; the second is superscript, consists of two dots;

Consists of five elements: two semi-ovals, one rectilinear vertical element, two connecting rectilinear elements going from bottom left to top right;

It consists of two elements: a lowercase semi-oval, a subline loop. The subscript element is equal in length to the height of the lowercase semi-oval;

Consists of two identical rectilinear vertical elements ending in arcuate movements;

It consists of three elements: two lowercase rectilinear vertical elements ending in arcuate movements and an overline horizontal

arcuate element starting from a fixed point. Superscript length is 2/3 . letter width;

Consists of three elements: rectilinear vertical; the second and third similarly curved elements, of which the upper one begins with a curl with a fixed point, the lower one ends with an arcuate movement. According to the new spellings, the letter "k" consists of three elements: the first straight vertical; the second rectilinear, going from bottom to top to the right and ending with an arcuate movement (the first and second elements are performed together), and the third rectilinear element, beginning and ending with an arcuate movement;

It consists of two rectilinear elements inclined towards each other: the first begins with an arcuate movement, the second ends with an arc equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

It consists of three elements: a rectilinear element inclined to the right and beginning with an arcuate movement; second and third rectilinear vertical

elements ending in arcuate movements equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

Consists of three elements: rectilinear vertical; connecting horizontal (tortuous or arcuate); rectilinear vertical, ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

Represents an oval of the correct form. The oval consists of left, lower, right and upper parts;

Consists of two elements: rectilinear vertical; a rectilinear vertical element, beginning and ending with an arcuate movement;

It consists of two elements: a rectilinear vertical part with a subline twice as large as the inline part; rectilinear vertical, beginning and ending with arcuate movements;

It consists of a semi-oval, beginning with a curl with a fixed point (according to the new spellings, this letter is performed without a fixed point and without a curl) and ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

Consists of three elements: rectilinear vertical; a rectilinear vertical element, starting with an arcuate movement; a rectilinear vertical element, beginning and ending with arcuate movements equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

Consists of two elements: a lowercase rectilinear vertical element ending in an arcuate movement; a rectilinear vertical element, turning into a subline loop equal to the line part;

It consists of three elements: two regular ovals (left and right), separated by a middle rectilinear vertical element, which is twice as high as the ovals;

Consists of two semi-oval elements. According to the old spellings, the first semi-oval begins with an arcuate movement and ends with a fixed-point whorl; the second half-oval begins with a fixed-point curl and ends with an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

It consists of three elements: two rectilinear vertical elements, the first of which ends with an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter; second

ends with an arcuate movement equal to 1/4 of the height of the letter; the third element is a subscript loop equal to 1/3 of the height of the lowercase part of the letter;

Consists of two elements: sinuous; rectilinear vertical, ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter. According to the old rules

this letter is formed from two elements: the first consists of two parts connected by a loop; the second semi-oval element ends with an arcuate movement equal to 1/3 of the height of the letter;

It consists of three straight vertical elements of the same type, ending in arcuate movements equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

Consists of four elements: the first two of the three rectilinear vertical elements end with arcuate movements equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter; the third ends with an arcuate movement equal to 1/4 of the height of the letter; the fourth element is a subscript loop equal to 1/2 of the height of the lowercase part of the letter;

Consists of two elements: sinuous; rectilinear vertical element, turning into an oval of regular shape, equal to 1/2 of the height of the sign. In accordance with the old spellings, "b" is formed from two elements: the first consists of two parts connected by a loop; the second rectilinear vertical element ends with an oval of regular shape, equal to 1/2 of the height of the sign. The second variant of the solid sign, provided for in words, has an oval, not closed by ¼ part, ending with a loop for connection with subsequent letters;

It consists of three elements: rectilinear vertical, ending in an oval equal to 1/3 of the height of the letter;

arcuate connecting; rectilinear vertical, ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter;

It consists of a rectilinear vertical element ending in a regular oval, equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter. The second version of the sign, provided for in words, has an oval "not closed on the 1/4 part and ending with a small loop;

It consists of two elements: a semi-oval, beginning and ending with arcuate movements; rectilinear horizontal element located in the middle part of the semi-oval. According to the old spellings, this letter consists of two elements: a semi-oval, starting with an arc and ending with a curl with a fixed point; a sinuous horizontal element located in the middle part of the semi-oval;

Consists of three elements: rectilinear vertical; arcuate (winding according to the old recipes) connecting element; an oval of regular shape equal in height to the first element;

Consists of two elements: arched, beginning with a curl and ending with an oval equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter; a rectilinear vertical element ending in an arcuate movement equal to 1/2 of the height of the letter.

All particular signs of handwriting are analyzed by the researcher in terms of complexity, form, direction, length of movements, the number of elements that make up written characters, the sequence of movements when performing these elements, the degree of continuity of movements when performing and linking letters, the relative placement of movements (when studying handwriting in necessary cases elements of written characters are numbered in the sequence in which they are performed. This sequence is followed in the following description.)

The complexity of movement (structure) when performing letters. This particular feature of handwriting is included by the expert in the set of identification features only in cases where elements of written characters and signs in general are performed or with simplified or complicated movements, i.e., in cases where letters and their elements are performed with deviations from the established generally accepted writings (simple handwriting). The complexity of movements when performing letters is the most “general” feature of all the particular features of handwriting. Therefore, its detailed study begins with the analysis of this particular group of features. The difference between these features in the compared (unchanged) handwriting in most studies allows the expert to come to the conclusion that there is no identity without further analysis of other groups of particular features.

The simplification of movements during the execution of written characters and their combinations occurs due to a decrease in the length of movements and the execution of special letters simplified in structure. The complication of movements in relation to the established standard prescriptions when performing letters and connecting them occurs due to an increase in the length of movements and the writing of special written characters complicated in design.

The complexity of movements when performing letters is a collective sign. Indicators of the degree of complexity are all of the above particular features of handwriting. For example, the presence in handwriting a large number written signs, made in various forms and in different directions of movements, informs the researcher about their complicated execution. Therefore, in order to assess the degree of complexity of movements when performing letters of the same name, the expert must analyze and compare them, taking into account:

The form of movements during the execution of the elements from which they are formed;

direction of movement;

The length of the movements;

The number of elements of which they are composed;

The sequence of movements when performing elements of letters;

The degree of continuity of movements when writing letters;

Relative placement of movements in the execution and connection of letter elements.

Due to the fact that the structure of handwriting is a multifaceted characteristic, the description of its complication or simplification can be characterized simultaneously by several features. Therefore, in the expert's opinion, it is most expedient to note the degree of complexity of movements along the structure, indicating the reasons due to which this or that complicated or simplified version of the written sign was formed. For example, the simplification of the variant of the letter "I" occurred due to the loss of the vertical part of the second element; complication of the variant of the letter "d" - due to an increase in the number of movements when performing the inline element: the inline element is made in the form of a double loop, etc. (Fig. 40).

Rice. 40. The complexity of movements when performing written signs - simple, simplified, complicated

The form of movements during the execution and connection of written characters and their elements, as already noted, can be rectilinear and curvilinear. Rectilinear movements along the trajectory can in combination form angles, triangles and broken lines (Fig. 41).

Curvilinear movements along the trajectory are divided into winding, circles, ovals, arcs, loops.

Rice. 41. The form of movements when performing and connecting elements of written characters

The angular form when writing written characters is formed as a result of abrupt change directions of rectilinear movements; tortuous-owing to smooth transition one curvilinear motion to another. The form of movements when writing lowercase, subscript and superscript elements of written characters, made in accordance with the prescriptions with rectilinear movements, can be changed to angular, arcuate, winding, semi-oval, oval.

When performing inline, subscript and superscript elements, executed in accordance with the prescriptions with oval, semi-oval and loop movements, their shape can change to straight, angular, sinuous.

The initial and final parts of the elements of written characters in form can be performed with rectilinear, angular, sinuous, arcuate, oval and loop movements (Fig. 42).

Rice. 42. The form of movements during the execution of the initial and final parts of the elements of written characters - rectilinear, angular, sinuous, arcuate, oval, loop

Additional elements of written characters in manuscripts are performed in form with rectilinear, angular, arcuate and sinuous movements (Fig. 43).

Rice. 43. The form of movements when performing additional elements of written signs

The connecting elements of the written characters in form are performed with rectilinear, angular, sinuous, arcuate and loop movements (Fig. 44).

Rice. 44. The form of movements when performing the connecting elements of written characters

The form of movements when connecting elements of written signs and written signs to each other, as well as when performing them, can be angular, arcuate and looped (Fig. 45).

Rice. 45. The form of movements when connecting elements of written characters

In the expert's conclusion, the researcher is obliged not only to note the coincidence or difference of this feature in the compared handwritings, but also to decipher which form of movement was displayed during the execution and connection of written characters. For example, the form of movements when performing: the upper part of the letter "o" is angular; superscript element of the letter "and" - loop;

the final part of the second element of the letter "i" is straight; additional element the letters "t" - sinuous; the form of movements when connecting the letters "in" is arc, etc. (Fig. 46).

Rice. 46. The form of movements when performing letters, elements of letters and the form of movements when connecting letters

The direction of movements when performing written signs and their elements. This particular sign of handwriting should always be analyzed by an expert taking into account the form of movements when performing certain elements. So, curvilinear elements: circles, semi-ovals, ovals, arcs are performed in manuscripts with left-hand and right-hand movements. Rectilinear elements are performed either by vertical movements from top to bottom or from bottom to top, or horizontal movements from left to right and right to left. Elements of written characters - vertical" or horizontal - located at an angle to the line of writing, are analyzed according to these characteristics. For example, the direction of movement when performing the first element of the letter "m" is from bottom left to top right.

When connecting elements in written signs and written signs to each other, the directions of movement are similar to those with which letters and their parts are made.

In the expert's opinion, the description of this sign should look something like this: "... a match was established for the following signs: the direction of movement when performing the first element of the letter "p" - from top to bottom; lowercase oval in the letter "d" - right-handed; the first element of the letter "p" - from bottom left to top right; when connecting the letters "tr" - from top left to bottom right ", etc. (Fig. 47).

The length of movements when performing written signs and their elements. This particular feature of handwriting is used to characterize the dimensional features of movement when performing lowercase and capital letters, as well as letters that have superscript and subscript elements. This feature is used to characterize both the letter as a whole and its individual elements. The length of movements during the execution of written signs and their elements is analyzed by the researcher vertically (size ratio) and horizontally (acceleration ratio).

In the manuscript, there are written characters performed by movements smaller or larger in vertical (height) and horizontal (width) than other letters. Sometimes in handwriting the elements of a written sign are executed by movements of different lengths both vertically and horizontally. In the first and second cases, this feature is evaluated by the expert only when it is consistently repeated throughout the manuscript.

In conclusion, the expert should not only note the coincidence or difference this sign handwriting, but also to indicate which particular written sign or its elements are how many times larger or smaller (vertically, horizontally) of the other letters and their elements. For example: “... matches were established for the following particular signs of handwriting ... the length of movements during execution: a) the letters “z” vertically are larger than other letters; the letters “o” are smaller than other letters, the subscript element of the letter “d” is twice as large as the inline element; b) horizontally of the superscript additional element of the letter “t” - two times less than the width of the letter ... ”, etc. (Fig. 48).

Rice. 48. The length of movements when performing written signs and their elements (vertically and horizontally)

The degree of connection (continuity) or the type of connection of movements in the performance of written characters and their elements. When characterizing common features handwriting, it was noted that the degree of connection (continuity) of movements when connecting written characters and their elements depends on the frequency of separation of the pen from the paper. Depending on in which plane - only horizontal or horizontal, followed by transfer of the hand to the vertical plane (with the pen detached from the sheet of paper), movements are performed during the formation of letters and their elements, two types of connections are distinguished: continuous - without interruption in a fixed movement and interval - with a break in a fixed movement. Breaks in the execution of letters and their elements can be inside written characters and between certain written characters (Fig. 49).

Rice. 49. Type of movement when connecting written characters and their elements (interval, continuous)

It should be noted that in the case of a break in a fixed movement, no matter how far apart the elements of written characters are from each other, even if they are adjacent to each other, the type of connection is considered interval. Expert practice has established that the interval type of connection has the greatest identification value when the letters “v”, “p”, “d” are executed with a superscript, “g”, “c”, “s”.

The description of the type of connection of movements during the execution of letters and their elements in the expert's conclusion does not cause any particular difficulties. When describing, it is necessary to indicate which elements of the letter or written characters are performed by interval movements, i.e., with a break in movement in one plane, and which by continuous movements. For example: “... differences were established according to the following particular features: by the type of connection of movements when performing elements of the letter “l”. In the studied handwriting - continuous; in samples - interval ... ", etc.

The number of movements when performing written signs and their elements. This sign has an identification value only if the written sign is also made with more or less movements in comparison with the existing standard scripts. The number of independent elements in the execution of letters depends on the number of fixed (continuous) movements and a sharp change in their direction. The more breaks and changes in the direction of movements, the more elements, in comparison with writing, are contained in written signs; the fewer such breaks and changes in the direction of movement, the fewer elements in written signs) (Fig. 50). So, for example, with a fused connection, the letter "I" is performed in one movement; with interval - two or three.

Rice. 50. The number of movements when performing written signs and their elements - increased, decreased

Rice. 51. The amount of movement when performing elements of letters

In his conclusion, the expert must note not only the absolute number of movements in the execution of written characters and their elements in comparison with the established prescriptions, but also indicate what caused the increase or decrease. For example: “... a match was established for the following particular features ... the number of movements when executing the letter“ and ”is increased due to an additional element; the letter "b" - reduced due to the loss of the horizontal part of the superscript element ... ", etc. (Fig. 51).

The sequence of movements when performing elements in written signs. This particular sign of handwriting acquires identification value only when the sequence of elements is violated in comparison with the provided standard recipes. Such violations are most often encountered when performing the letters "v", "n", "g", "x" and written characters that have subscript and superscript elements.

In the expert's conclusion, this sign of handwriting is characterized approximately as follows: “... matches were established for such particular signs ... the sequence of movements when performing the elements of the letter “n” - first, the first and third elements are performed, then the second; Differences in the sequence of movements during the execution of "f" were established. So, in the handwriting under study, "f" corresponds to the spelling; in the samples, first the second vertical rectilinear element is executed, then the first and third ... ”, etc. (Fig. 52).

Rice. 52. The sequence of movements when performing elements in written signs

Relative placement of movements considered in relation to the points of beginning and end, points of connection and intersection of movements in the performance of written characters and their elements. These placements of movements are analyzed in relation to the line of writing, other elements and written characters. The start and end points of movements are also considered relative to each other.

Placement of start and end points of movements. These points are located on the line of the letter, above and below it. In turn, the superscript location of the points of beginning and end of movements is conventionally divided into high, medium and low. High placement of the point of beginning and end of movements is the position when they are above the line, conditionally drawn parallel to the line of writing through the center of the letter; middle - when located on this line; low - below the line. With regard to descenders, the placement of the end points of the movements can also be high, medium and low. The farther from the line of writing the end point of the movement, the lower its location is considered, and vice versa (Fig. 53).

In the expert's conclusion, this sign can be described as follows: "... matches were established for the following particular features of the handwriting ... the placement of the point of the beginning of the movement when the first element of the letter "l" is executed is below the line of writing ... "etc.

Rice. 53. Relative Placement:

a-points of the beginning of movements when performing a written sign - high, medium, low; b - end points of movements when performing a written sign - low, medium, high

With respect to other elements, in particular oval ones, the points of beginning and end of movements can be located to the left, to the right of the oval, inside the oval; relative to other elements - to the right, to the left of them or on them (Fig. 54).

Rice. 54. Placement of movements relative to ovals and other elements

Relative to each other, the points of the beginning and end of the movement can be located lower, higher, at the same level, to the left, to the right (Fig. 55).

Rice. 55. Mutual placement of start and end points of movements

In the expert's conclusion, this feature is described as follows: "... the point of the beginning of the movement when the letter "a" is executed coincides - in the center of the oval ...", etc.

It should be noted that the location of the start and end points of movements is considered only if the letters and their elements are not connected to the previous and subsequent elements. Otherwise, this feature is considered as the placement of points of connection or intersection of movements.

The placement of the movement connection point is considered in relation to the writing line and other elements. This point can be located above, below or on the line of the letter. The placement of the connection point above the writing line, as well as the placement of the start and end points of movements, is divided into low, medium and high "(Fig. 56).

Rice. 56. Placement of the connection point of movements when performing written characters and their elements relative to the line of writing

Relative to other elements, these points can be: when connecting ovals to previous and subsequent elements, to the right or left of the oval, to the right or left of the oval, inside the oval and on the oval; when connecting other non-oval elements - to the right, to the left of the element, on the element, above or below a certain part of the element (Fig. 57).

In the expert's conclusion, this sign is described as follows: "...differences were established...in the placement of the connection point of movements when performing the letters" mon ". In the studied handwriting, the placement is low; in the samples - high ... ".

The placement of the movement intersection point is analyzed in relation to the writing line and other elements. Regarding the line of writing, it can be high, medium and low. Placing this point in inline and subline elements is similar to setting the start and end points of movements when performing letters and their elements (Fig. 58).

Rice. 57. Placing a motion connection point relative to other elements

With respect to other elements, this feature is considered to the left or right of the element, above or on the element. This sign should be described in the expert's conclusion as follows: “... the placement of the point of intersection of movements relative to the line of writing was found to coincide. When the subscript of the letter "y" is executed, the placement of the intersection point is high ... ", etc.

Rice. 58. Placement of the intersection point of movements when performing elements of written signs

Placement of movements when performing letters and their elements vertically and horizontally. These movements can be located: above, below and on the line of writing; and relative to other elements - below, above and below the element (Fig. 59).

Rice. 59. Placement of movements when performing elements of letters vertically

The description of this sign in the expert's opinion is as follows: “...there was a difference in the placement of the movement when the first element of the letter “m” was performed: in the studied handwriting - above the second and third elements; in the samples - below ... ".

When performing letters and their elements horizontally, the placement of movements is considered relative to other elements and their parts: on the element (adjacent to the element), at a certain distance to the right or left of the element, and in relation to oval elements - inside the oval (Fig. 60).

Rice. 60. Placement of movements when performing letters and their elements horizontally

In the expert's conclusion, this sign can be described as follows: “... a difference in the placement of movement during the execution of the second element of the letter "r" was established: in the studied handwriting - at some distance from the first element; in samples - adjoins the first element ... ". In crime literature, dedicated to the issue handwriting, highlighted special group signs, which plays a certain role in resolving the issue of the executor of the letter. These include ways to perform: dates (whether they are written in Arabic or Roman numerals, arranged in a line or fraction, etc.); various arithmetic signs; transfer of individual words; the size and configuration of punctuation marks (brackets, quotation marks, question and exclamation marks); a way to include missing words, sentences, paragraphs in the manuscript, including individual words and sentences in the manuscript (underlining, etc.).

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